tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-66421231220378029412024-03-29T10:05:52.165-05:00Larkspur Plant ResourcesA Reference for the Minnesota RegionSusanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comBlogger56125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-58324848618816645762024-03-12T17:04:00.002-05:002024-03-12T17:04:49.165-05:00What is a rhizome?<p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKLlhK4Ov-80Z4taPiAk5hMwScwepH4pLE44RG1OP_e_AwZuObO8sn4hZIZ48gG4TbNH69KVG_rGOuoXKC5-634BHJoo-OCBWgICUX2dlMB9IAVQ1s5ar5lx1zAaDFKxvCy_VDVeh_-8vBXnim3JBKtm0AAEVCB-lYnU2wGEhVa6d7zJ7sW28bx960iQ/s913/Mayapple%20rhizome.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A brown, horizontal rhizome bearing a pair of whitish nubs (incipient shoots) and clusters of long, white roots." border="0" data-original-height="574" data-original-width="913" height="402" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKLlhK4Ov-80Z4taPiAk5hMwScwepH4pLE44RG1OP_e_AwZuObO8sn4hZIZ48gG4TbNH69KVG_rGOuoXKC5-634BHJoo-OCBWgICUX2dlMB9IAVQ1s5ar5lx1zAaDFKxvCy_VDVeh_-8vBXnim3JBKtm0AAEVCB-lYnU2wGEhVa6d7zJ7sW28bx960iQ/w640-h402/Mayapple%20rhizome.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Mayapple (<i>Podophyllum peltatum</i>) spreads by rhizomes. The two whitish nubs at the node in the middle are the beginning of shoots. Clusters of roots also grow from the nodes.</td></tr></tbody></table><br />A rhizome (RY-zome), also called a creeping rootstock, isn’t
a root at all. It’s a stem that runs roughly horizontal under or just above the soil,
producing roots and shoots along its length. Slender, aboveground rhizomes,
like those of strawberries, are also called stolons (STOW-lons). In either
case, they're stems, and they serve many purposes.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Rhizomatous (rhizome-bearing) plants are colony-formers. Mayapple rhizomes, pictured above, grow moderately fast to produce a steadily expanding colony. The compact rhizomes of large-flowered trillium (<i>Trillium grandiflorum</i>) grow much slower, producing closely spaced clumps of plants. On the opposite end of the spectrum, weedy quackgrass
(<i>Elymus repens</i>) and Japanese knotweed (<i>Fallopia japonica</i>) have
vigorous rhizomes that quickly give rise to large, rapidly expanding colonies.
That’s why they’re hard to manage. Even if they’re pulled or dug up, they can regrow quickly from even small bits of rhizomes left behind.<o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqELHyvdsN-V4U2XzUfS8k09sMSSW43dfH5o3gp9jrp2VTiRIFkatqB80KOb1wfG1nbSPUz2cQ5FE2B0jSdf-UHgAJW3o7sMmLsJjFGxbj034cl9SNT5Q_nCLbUT4a1Lc1Jwpkn3fROgoiO5WnCwfxphNYbD3KcyGY5sx-tEngXP_eBnBu_PCvYW8iDw/s4357/Mayapple%20Trillium%20Fragaria.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A set of three photos showing mayapple with its umbrella-like leaves, a clump of large-flowered trillium with several white, three-petaled flowers, and wild strawberry leaves and runners clambering over rocks." border="0" data-original-height="1349" data-original-width="4357" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqELHyvdsN-V4U2XzUfS8k09sMSSW43dfH5o3gp9jrp2VTiRIFkatqB80KOb1wfG1nbSPUz2cQ5FE2B0jSdf-UHgAJW3o7sMmLsJjFGxbj034cl9SNT5Q_nCLbUT4a1Lc1Jwpkn3fROgoiO5WnCwfxphNYbD3KcyGY5sx-tEngXP_eBnBu_PCvYW8iDw/w640-h198/Mayapple%20Trillium%20Fragaria.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><i>Left</i>: A mayapple colony. Each plant is 12-16 inches (30-40 cm) tall. <i>Center</i>: Large-flowered trillium grows in clumps from slowly growing rhizomes. The flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) wide. <i>Right</i>: The slender red rhizomes of wild strawberry (<i>Fragaria vesca</i>) are also called stolons. Each is about as wide as a pencil tip. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Rhizomes have several benefits.</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Rhizomes are a form of vegetative reproduction. Compared to
flowers and seeds, they’re a faster and energetically less expensive way to grow
a population. Rhizomes won’t spread a plant far and wide – seeds are often better at that – but if a plant is growing in a favorable place, rhizomes
can increase its numbers quickly, and without the risk of losing fragile seedlings.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Except for stolons, rhizomes also serve as storage organs. As
winter approaches, sugars and nutrients are moved underground, forming a
protected reserve that can be tapped to begin next year’s growth. Some rhizomes
end in tubers, swollen organs specialized for storage. Potatoes are a familiar
example, but other plants also have tubers. The small tubers of native enchanter’s
nightshade (<i>Circaea lutetiana</i>) detach from their rhizomes in fall and function
much like seeds, and the tubers of yellow nutsedge (<i>Cyperus esculentus</i>),
also called earth almonds, are the edible but maddening means by which this plant
persists.<o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBoSBEjs8wsRPQeogcwX1hHQQyMqkDxsTCVZ6kr7fW7BUj76Pm-0wAs0TYcXH1Oakhx6A4UKhyrKpHUiSH5X4DUP-8UPMn7KWIOxVFu4kNG3adz1v91WrWjh9lG3z1yf8l2_jKWIQPeBysnHBx_txTsaiHHNn0gITulb7ZgusOlbsqF_n9y_U9QcoSsw/s4324/Yellow%20nutsedge%20plants%20and%20tubers.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Two photos showing yellow nutsedge plants with grass-like leaves and branched, yellow flower clusters, and a root/rhizome system with several light to dark brown, pea-sized tubers." border="0" data-original-height="1420" data-original-width="4324" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBoSBEjs8wsRPQeogcwX1hHQQyMqkDxsTCVZ6kr7fW7BUj76Pm-0wAs0TYcXH1Oakhx6A4UKhyrKpHUiSH5X4DUP-8UPMn7KWIOxVFu4kNG3adz1v91WrWjh9lG3z1yf8l2_jKWIQPeBysnHBx_txTsaiHHNn0gITulb7ZgusOlbsqF_n9y_U9QcoSsw/w640-h210/Yellow%20nutsedge%20plants%20and%20tubers.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><i>Left</i>: Yellow nutsedge plants. Photo by Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org. </div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-style: italic;">Right</i><i>: </i>The thin, white rhizomes of yellow sedge bear small tubers. Photo by Steve Dewey, Utah State University, Bugwood.org.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Rhizomes have potential drawbacks, too.</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Plants that produce seeds or spores combine DNA from
different individuals to make genetically unique offspring. The young plants
aren’t exactly like their parents or even like each other. In contrast, rhizomes
produce genetically identical offspring. All shoots from a common rhizome are the
same as their parents and the same as each other. In other words, they are clones.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If that uniform gene combination is adaptive in a certain
environment, it’s an advantage. It’s like using the same, tried-and-true recipe
over and over again, with great success. If conditions change, though,
uniformity can be a drawback. If the plants don’t have the genetic makeup to
adapt, say, to warmer or drier weather or shadier or lighter conditions, the
population may not survive. Their genetic recipe may not serve them well
anymore. Especially in a rapidly or drastically changing environment, plants
that reproduce primarily by rhizomes may decline, while plants that reproduce by
seeds or spores may survive if a few individuals have the genetic ability to adapt.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>How to recognize a rhizomatous plant<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In the field, there are several ways to know that a plant
has rhizomes. One is to look for spreading growth. The presence of colonies can
indicate that rhizomes lie below, although some plants without rhizomes also
grow in spreading patches. They may have sprawling stems, for example, or seeds
that land close to the parent plant. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Another option is to look underground. If possible and
permissible, pull or dig up a stem and look at the root system. Rhizomes, if
present, will grow horizontally or almost so. They will also have nodes, places
where small, scale-like leaves are or were attached. That’s how to tell
rhizomes from roots, which also grow from rhizomes. Some rhizomatous plants also produce aboveground leaves -- see the last section for an example. Wear gloves when you handle rhizomes; some can irritate skin or even cause poisoning if ingested. </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0gbLfqHGCt1UDZZ3yFNObe7RToC_o4ewBMQ7-amy9EA3crUG3h1EESAP19m0gkAuGPlh1B44Kdd41ZQbkvsz3aPv1iq6v1QTmMyoPUHQ0_VVmKMiILbgn_2I5wmKygPWaORh3-tqtS1XBxmwbjqNyDUdKe2iRLlO2tpN46VNNBP18yG4Jgb5kfWveRg/s3712/Canada%20goldenrod%20rhizome%20with%20labels.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A single, whitish rhizome and clusters of thin, white roots of Canada goldenrod. The rhizome has dark marks at regular intervals that indicate the position of nodes." border="0" data-original-height="2475" data-original-width="3712" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0gbLfqHGCt1UDZZ3yFNObe7RToC_o4ewBMQ7-amy9EA3crUG3h1EESAP19m0gkAuGPlh1B44Kdd41ZQbkvsz3aPv1iq6v1QTmMyoPUHQ0_VVmKMiILbgn_2I5wmKygPWaORh3-tqtS1XBxmwbjqNyDUdKe2iRLlO2tpN46VNNBP18yG4Jgb5kfWveRg/w400-h266/Canada%20goldenrod%20rhizome%20with%20labels.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Canada goldenrod (<i>Solidago canadensis</i>) has pencil-thick rhizomes and much thinner and more numerous roots.<br /><br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8Na6ri8GKtDJitB5emSnGRNpkyHziIGNfyqt_7Ix9PMH4_TqScGF-x6_MbB40hjyB_3FgIOITas2sSwf03UE8E24w9RbeH8f9gyDSzSTVQcN_FunGh9qXBpSO5u4p8ebhWyri2jKdO1sOCvvZtBFQJ7JmmYPhfxNI_R7S9GBpE8xq5hZcOLcNXa9LZw/s4016/Bloodroot%20plants%20and%20rhizome.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Two photos, the first showing bloodroot plants with closed, white flowers and lobed green leaves wrapped around the flower stalks; the second showing a thick, orange-red rhizome." border="0" data-original-height="1364" data-original-width="4016" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8Na6ri8GKtDJitB5emSnGRNpkyHziIGNfyqt_7Ix9PMH4_TqScGF-x6_MbB40hjyB_3FgIOITas2sSwf03UE8E24w9RbeH8f9gyDSzSTVQcN_FunGh9qXBpSO5u4p8ebhWyri2jKdO1sOCvvZtBFQJ7JmmYPhfxNI_R7S9GBpE8xq5hZcOLcNXa9LZw/w640-h218/Bloodroot%20plants%20and%20rhizome.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><i>Left</i>: Bloodroot (<i>Sanguinaria canadensis</i>) plants grow in slowly expanding colonies from their rhizomes. These plants, photographed in early spring, will eventually unfold their leaves and open their flowers. <i>Right</i>: A mature bloodroot rhizome is about as thick as a thumb. If cut it will "bleed" an orange-red latex. So will the aboveground parts. The latex is poisonous in large doses. Photo by Joseph O'Brien, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org.<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">A thorough plant guide will tell you if a plant has rhizomes.
A plant’s name can be another clue. If the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>common name includes “creeping” or “crawling,” it’s a good bet it has
rhizomes. Creeping Charlie and creeping bellflower are good examples. Sometimes
plants creep by other means, such as low-growing or arching stems that root at
nodes where they touch the soil. This kind of creeping habit, though, can be easily
spotted above ground. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Scientific names, too, can be revealing. Look at the specific
epithet, the second word in a plant’s scientific name, which identifies the
species. If you see <i>repens</i> or <i>reptans</i>, from Latin words meaning
creeping or crawling, the plant likely has rhizomes. As mentioned above, the Eurasian
import <i>Elymus repens</i>, or quackgrass, spreads aggressively by rhizomes. Native
<i>Polemonium reptans</i>, or spreading Jacob’s ladder, also has rhizomes, but
they grow slowly. The plant also spreads with its sprawling stems and self-seeding
habit.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><b>Looking for an easy rhizome to study? Try
clover. <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;">Introduced Dutch or white clover, <i>Trifolium
repens</i>, is a convenient plant to see rhizomes. Its stem grows just above or
below the soil, so it’s easy to pull up. This is the only stem the plant has.
The vertical “shoots” are actually petioles, or leaf stalks, and scapes, structures that support clusters of flowers.
Notice that the rhizome has nodes, but the petiole and scape do not. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUkgau66YFSFHxaQGwt_0pdJRuLRwOpIAyj6owl_0bAAfII0qV9wGt2bTWd6WfpuslKQtllBsYRT8hKS864WcBNczsoIxKn7QPj3RboodavZmK8Q50vXoorpiI4iZH_bgUcM6NP-GyOnKa85rxg0O_KFqxqSrws7tIPcIq7TlReNkcw3j8bCe99L4fzg/s3947/White%20clover%20colony%20and%20rhizome.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Two photos, the first showing a mass of clover with clusters of white flowers and the second showing a narrow, red clover rhizome." border="0" data-original-height="2147" data-original-width="3947" height="347" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUkgau66YFSFHxaQGwt_0pdJRuLRwOpIAyj6owl_0bAAfII0qV9wGt2bTWd6WfpuslKQtllBsYRT8hKS864WcBNczsoIxKn7QPj3RboodavZmK8Q50vXoorpiI4iZH_bgUcM6NP-GyOnKa85rxg0O_KFqxqSrws7tIPcIq7TlReNkcw3j8bCe99L4fzg/w640-h347/White%20clover%20colony%20and%20rhizome.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">A white clover colony spreads by rhizomes. They can grow quickly, forming patches. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 423.0pt;">True roots will also come up, and
they lack nodes, too. Some of them may have tiny nodules attached. These aren’t
tubers, but rather small bodies containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The
bacteria convert nitrogen gas in the air to a form the plant can use. For more information
about that, see <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/search?q=nitrogen+fixation">The
Boon of Biological Nitrogen Fixation.</a><o:p></o:p></p><p></p><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgubRj4KObRb3vLY6ayu8v9z67oBa_Ecj_A1mV2gvrK6eevoNp5NciX66DQz6P3J5QLZy1UgzcdOHPtdD3sdF-DaoLn3Svt78enuN7QXAxVptjTov2tBiNP389Qo-FV0KqGpAZDtWKWNcTRSSwHOVlzHErod3tazc5D8GI6V3JpGLQ9H6MQF2ZfCJn0oA/s2128/White%20clover%20roots%20with%20nodules%20labeled.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A white clover rhizome with roots bearing many small nodules." border="0" data-original-height="2128" data-original-width="1953" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgubRj4KObRb3vLY6ayu8v9z67oBa_Ecj_A1mV2gvrK6eevoNp5NciX66DQz6P3J5QLZy1UgzcdOHPtdD3sdF-DaoLn3Svt78enuN7QXAxVptjTov2tBiNP389Qo-FV0KqGpAZDtWKWNcTRSSwHOVlzHErod3tazc5D8GI6V3JpGLQ9H6MQF2ZfCJn0oA/w294-h320/White%20clover%20roots%20with%20nodules%20labeled.jpg" width="294" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A white clover rhizome and roots with nodules.</td></tr></tbody></table><br />Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-11127672553556139932024-01-28T13:37:00.005-06:002024-01-28T13:48:35.564-06:00Look Closely at Wildflower and Pollinator Seed Mixes<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4CubPJYztXclLSvfRqPDQucnOFCI_yLTxLDxdMuX5xCx50RH_j03fZg02vcrqJ2zNRd_YHHG0qlbOTo6UX823gMrE-s61Y6fnjDatfzl3imt39nvGXFs-pHIrHs1MKODsLOM4V_2cjLqT_SmwXu5b6LcyEu3VW1cbt7Wrm-uJtPGEHjg8SFIp2t4ICA/s2754/Wildflower%20seed%20mix%202.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A mock-up of a seed package showing a field of wild flowers and the words "Wildflower Mix."" border="0" data-original-height="1559" data-original-width="2754" height="362" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4CubPJYztXclLSvfRqPDQucnOFCI_yLTxLDxdMuX5xCx50RH_j03fZg02vcrqJ2zNRd_YHHG0qlbOTo6UX823gMrE-s61Y6fnjDatfzl3imt39nvGXFs-pHIrHs1MKODsLOM4V_2cjLqT_SmwXu5b6LcyEu3VW1cbt7Wrm-uJtPGEHjg8SFIp2t4ICA/w640-h362/Wildflower%20seed%20mix%202.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal">If you’re thinking about sowing a wildflower or pollinator seed
mix this season, you have lots of company. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Many people have been inspired to support pollinators by
planting wildflowers to provide nectar and pollen. This increasing demand has
spurred many companies to offer one or more seed mixes online or in retail stores. Caution
is best, though, before choosing one. Look closely at the mix contents. “Wildflower”
means different things to different people, and there could be surprises. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Consider the contents of this mix advertised for Minnesota: <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">Sweet William, Prairie Coneflower,
Mexican Hat, Red Corn Poppy, Lance Leaf Coreopsis, Shirley Poppy, Wild Cosmos,
Blanket Flower, Black Eyed Susan, Wild Perennial Lupine, Purple Coneflower,
Russell Lupine, Plains Coreopsis, Siberian Wallflower, Scarlet Flax, Annual Red
Phlox, Cornflower, Gloriosa Daisy, California Poppy, Perennial Blue Flax,
Candytuft. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Although these plants will likely survive in Minnesota, some
are undesirable because they can grow aggressively, alter soil chemistry, or
replace food sources that native insects or other animals are long adapted to
using. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">One example is Russell Lupine, also called Bigleaf Lupine.
Known by the scientific name <i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i>, the plant is a garden
favorite native to several western states. It has been introduced to the Upper
Midwest, the Northeast, eastern Canada, and even Europe primarily for its
ornamental value, but also for its deep, nitrogen-fixing roots that can stabilize
and enrich soils.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">In Minnesota, Russell Lupine has become especially abundant
in the Arrowhead region, especially along roadsides through
the north shore of Lake Superior. In spring and early summer, masses of the
plants bloom in spectacular displays of white, pink, blue and purple. Their
striking colonies are a big draw to that area each season. That’s good for the regional
economy, but not so good for its environment. Beautiful though they are, the
plants have some drawbacks. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Although Russell Lupine, <i>L. polyphyllus</i>, isn’t
considered a noxious weed in Minnesota, the plant has several traits associated
with invasive plants. It reproduces prolifically and grows in dense patches
that exclude other plants, including native plants that have long supported pollinators.
Although the plant declines in summer heat, it can grow in a range of other conditions, from moist
to dry soils and full to part sun. That adaptability means it can grow in many
habitats, from lakeshores and wetland edges to upland forest edges and
roadsides. Its deep roots do help stabilize and enrich erodible, nutrient-poor
soils – a useful trait for reclamation in the West – but deep roots also make the
plant hard to remove from places where it isn’t wanted.<o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZaKVk6JlcskI_rV0MkXwCPPzowPa2LQFPEBdn9Bk0eWEXxznnZrcd0i4WI0l4lLxaWS_kG1QbAJYZTbtQzNip77hAAqH6qa2SiSEzh7DaTd-FW9ezacdibq6TRo6KU60BBEvMFfSQh_L8SeuxSVyu5zg0cYO0pCOFn7w7GzUZKuBQsbyEecvmKn4Oag/s858/Lupinus%20polyphyllus%20colony%20in%20NE%20MN.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="623" data-original-width="858" height="464" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZaKVk6JlcskI_rV0MkXwCPPzowPa2LQFPEBdn9Bk0eWEXxznnZrcd0i4WI0l4lLxaWS_kG1QbAJYZTbtQzNip77hAAqH6qa2SiSEzh7DaTd-FW9ezacdibq6TRo6KU60BBEvMFfSQh_L8SeuxSVyu5zg0cYO0pCOFn7w7GzUZKuBQsbyEecvmKn4Oag/w640-h464/Lupinus%20polyphyllus%20colony%20in%20NE%20MN.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">A mass of <i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i> along a roadside in northeast Minnesota. Photo copyright Peter Dzuik, 2004, and used with permission granted on the <a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/page/terms-of-use"><b>Minnesota Wildflowers</b></a> website. <br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Unfortunately, <i>L. polyphyllus</i> is sometimes mistaken
for (and mislabeled as) our native “wild” lupine, <i>Lupinus perennis</i>. Now
called Sundial Lupine to avoid confusion with “wild” Russell varieties, this
perennial grows in prairies and savannas primarily in southeast and east
central Minnesota and the eastern U.S. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Like Russell Lupine, Sundial Lupine is beautiful, but more importantly it's critical for the survival of the federally endangered Karner Blue butterfly, <i>Plebejus
samuelis</i>. Karner Blue larvae feed only on Sundial Lupine. Females lay their
eggs on or near the plant – or what they judge to be the plant – and the
caterpillars eat the leaves. Karner Blues are endangered in large part because Sundial
Lupine has lost habitat, and as this larval host has become less plentiful, so
has the Karner Blue. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">Efforts are underway to bolster
populations of Sundial Lupine, but where it overlaps with plantings of <i>Lupinus
polyphyllus</i>, competition and hybridization present challenges. <i>L.
polyphyllus</i> grows more aggressively and can displace <i>L. perennis</i>.
The two species also hybridize, and unfortunately, neither <i>L. polyphyllus </i>nor
its hybrids support Karner Blue larvae. If female butterflies lay eggs on either one, the larvae are unlikely to survive. <o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal">Wildflower seed mixes, then, can include species that have
both benefits and major drawbacks. To avoid problems like those caused by <i>L.
polyphyllus, </i>it’s best to pause before choosing a mix. Study the contents
and try to avoid species that can do more harm than good. Here are some steps
to take:</p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The surest and easiest solution is to buy seeds
and seed mixes from a local native plant nursery. The Minnesota DNR maintains a
</span><a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/gardens/nativeplants/suppliers.html" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b>list
of native plant suppliers</b></a><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b>.</b> These growers are familiar with what should and
shouldn’t be included in a mix, but if you prefer to do the work yourself, keep
reading.</span></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Look for scientific names of the plants in the
mix. Different species may have the same common name, and plants with different
common names may be the same species. Scientific names avoid this confusion by
revealing a plant’s identity. If none are given, either don’t buy the mix or try
to use the common names of the species to look them up.</span></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Using scientific names, search for information
about each species. Where is it from? Does it have a reputation for
invasiveness? Good sources include the </span><a href="https://plants.usda.gov/" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b>USDA
Plants Database</b></a><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, </span><a href="https://www.eddmaps.org/" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b>EDDMapS</b></a><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, the </span><a href="https://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b>Invasive Plant Atlas</b></a><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, and your
state’s department of natural resources. Alternatively, search online using the
scientific name of the plant followed by “invasive.” </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Be aware that plants native to the U.S. or North
America are not necessarily native to your area. This may seem unimportant, but
plants that come from another part of the country or continent can behave
differently where they’re introduced.</span></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Also be aware that maps showing native ranges
can be wrong. The USDA Plants Database map for </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">L. polyphyllus</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, for
example, shows that the plant is native to much of the U.S. and Canada. But a plant guide from the USDA states that it’s native only to several western states and two western Canadian provinces..</span></li></ul><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNAkbnCXtIpFToxPwlvouUOjRbrez-sbigSQwQ5hxgSqr3exjzq64K3S_EWo-bemS3vwo7VLWvnzlV0EsI0UjG-BoetmhQoVtIhjBF7oZhGaEj-IRrN1ghhRoU5ylPEb9FgxU7w8pAJlM2sQfSm89HtS041ATyWWUQRf7KGxF53djngp_sGwMOk_VlUQ/s602/Lupinus%20polyphyllus%20range%20map%20modified%20USDA.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A map of North America showing states and provinces where Russell Lupine is now found. Yellow stars placed on Alberta and Britsh Columbia in Canada and Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Montana, and Utah in the U.S. show where it originated." border="0" data-original-height="392" data-original-width="602" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNAkbnCXtIpFToxPwlvouUOjRbrez-sbigSQwQ5hxgSqr3exjzq64K3S_EWo-bemS3vwo7VLWvnzlV0EsI0UjG-BoetmhQoVtIhjBF7oZhGaEj-IRrN1ghhRoU5ylPEb9FgxU7w8pAJlM2sQfSm89HtS041ATyWWUQRf7KGxF53djngp_sGwMOk_VlUQ/w400-h260/Lupinus%20polyphyllus%20range%20map%20modified%20USDA.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Range of <i>Lupinus polyphyllus, </i>according to the USDA. States and provinces <br />shaded green are where the plant is said to be native. Yellow stars are added to <br />show where the plant originated.</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-indent: -24px;"><br /></div><o:p></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">As you read about the plant, look for invasive
traits, such as rapid growth and prolific reproduction by seeds or vegetative
parts. Phrases like “forms large colonies” and “naturalizes easily” are red flags, especially if the plant isn't native here. Comments from other growers can also be informative. One customer who grew
Russell Lupine posted, “Lupines are growing everywhere, even the few seeds . .
. tossed at the edge of the woods.” </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Sometimes pictures of a species
provide a clue. If photos show an extensive carpet of plants (a monoculture),
that plant is probably aggressive and could displace other species.</span></li></ul><div style="text-indent: -24px;"><br /></div><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p><b>References and More Information</b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><u>Wildflower and pollinator plantings<o:p></o:p></u></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Greta Gramig, Ph.D. <a href="https://wssa.net/wp-content/uploads/WSSA-Weeds-in-Wildflower-Mixes.pdf"><b>Growing
Wild: A ‘How-To’ Guide for Avoiding Weed-Filled Wildflower</b> Mixes</a><span class="MsoHyperlink">. </span>Weed Science Society of America. </li><li><o:p> </o:p><span style="background-color: transparent;">Joe Baltrukonis. </span><a href="https://www.ramseymastergardeners.org/post/wild-flower-seed-mixes-buyer-beware" style="background-color: transparent;"><b>“Wild”
Flower Seed Mixes: Buyer Beware!</b></a><span style="background-color: transparent;"> Ramsey Master Gardeners. April 23, 2021;
updated June 24, 2021.</span></li><li><span style="color: #293e31; font-family: Raleway; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span>BWSR, The Nature Conservancy, Wild
Ones, Xerces Society. <b><a href="https://bwsr.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/2019-02/How%20you%20can%20help%20pollinators%20fact%20sheet.pdf">How
You Can Help Pollinators: Guidance for using pollinator seed in Minnesota home
landscapes</a>.</b> BWSR.</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"> </span><u>Russell Lupine, <i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i></u></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Beuthin, M. 2012. <a href="https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_lupo2.pdf"><b>Plant
guide for bigleaf lupine (<i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i>)</b>.</a> USDA-Natural
Resources Conservation Service, Plant Materials Center, Corvallis, OR.</li><li><o:p> </o:p><span style="background-color: transparent;">Dan Kraker. </span><a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2022/07/01/invasive-lupine-a-lovely-lightning-rod-on-minnesotas-north-shore" style="background-color: transparent;"><b>Invasive
lupine, a lovely lightning rod on Minnesota's North Shore</b></a><span style="background-color: transparent;">. MPR, July 1,
2022.</span></li><li>Valtonen, A., Jantunen, J.,
Saarinen, K. Flora and lepidoptera fauna adversely affected by invasive <i>Lupinus
polyphyllus</i> along road verges. Biological Conservation 133 (3): 389-396
(2006).<b> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.06.015">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.06.015</a></b>.</li><li>Prass, M., Ramula, S., Jauni,
M. et al. The invasive herb <i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i> can
reduce plant species richness independently of local invasion age. Biol
Invasions 24, 425–436 (2022). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02652-y"><b>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02652-y</b></a></li><li>USDA, NRCS. 2024. The PLANTS Database
(http://plants.usda.gov, 01/28/2024). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
USA.</li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><u>Karner Blue butterflies</u></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Minnesota DNR. <i><a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=IILEPG5021"><b>Plebejus
samuelis<span style="font-style: normal;">: Karner Blue</span></b></a></i>. Rare Speces Guide, MN DNR.</li><li>U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. <b><a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/karner-blue-butterfly-lycaeides-melissa-samuelis">Karner
Blue Butterfly</a>.</b> USFWS.</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p>
<br /></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-70749620625670146222023-12-05T19:46:00.003-06:002023-12-16T10:32:05.427-06:00Battling Buckthorn: Research Continues<p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicjTm3juSc1TWnNnfnLVz7mriSZr_WdYy-FD4RXqXkNdtm598QZPQnJtqSxaF07YHie_k-06DOp7eFderQCjUf_pYBraHCJo2tuCwDn4mYfx2UqAqtzpxlb-QLeVL3Q_KHfx29r4zu7Sbocr9ERqvXIXN7xMTbc-GPf1lDiwgNGhQT5a16QHs_hj3o8A/s1048/Common%20buckthorn%20in%20autumn%20understory.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="628" data-original-width="1048" height="384" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicjTm3juSc1TWnNnfnLVz7mriSZr_WdYy-FD4RXqXkNdtm598QZPQnJtqSxaF07YHie_k-06DOp7eFderQCjUf_pYBraHCJo2tuCwDn4mYfx2UqAqtzpxlb-QLeVL3Q_KHfx29r4zu7Sbocr9ERqvXIXN7xMTbc-GPf1lDiwgNGhQT5a16QHs_hj3o8A/w640-h384/Common%20buckthorn%20in%20autumn%20understory.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Common buckthorn, <i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>, fills the understory of this hardwood forest. Buckthorn retains its green leaves longer than most other woody plants.</div><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Anyone who’s tried to manage invasive common buckthorn (<i>Rhamnus
cathartica</i>) knows it’s a battle. Pull it out and seedlings take its
place. Cut it and it grows back, especially if the cut stump isn’t treated with
herbicide. Buckthorn baggies or other covers for cut stumps are an option, but
not a practical one for large, dense infestations. The <a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/woody/buckthorn/biocontrol.html"><b>search
for insects that target buckthorn</b></a> hasn’t succeeded yet, either.<p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Although these difficulties are frustrating, researchers at
the University of Minnesota haven’t given up. Just the opposite: They are
leading several investigations of potential solutions. Their studies
of biodiversity, fungi, goats and other possible buckthorn remedies are shedding light on what works, what doesn’t and what to try
next.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here are summaries of some of their
efforts.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Using biodiversity to control buckthorn<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The University’s “Cover It Up!” studies investigate the use
of plants to suppress regrowth of common buckthorn after it is removed. Two
phases are completed and a third is in progress, all asking questions about
which plants are best at outcompeting buckthorn, how best to plant them, and
how managing fire and deer browsing affects the success of using plants to
control buckthorn. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The researchers were surprised by one of their findings: Most
buckthorn seeds remain viable in the soil for only 1-2 years, not the commonly
thought 6 years. That means seedlings will be abundant for the first year or
two after buckthorn is removed but should taper after that, assuming new seeds
aren’t introduced.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Phase 3 of the project is underway. When it’s done,
researchers hope to offer buckthorn solutions that are both affordable and
practical. For more information, see the <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/research/research-projects/cover-it-using-plants-control-buckthorn"><b>Cover
It Up! project page</b>.</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Can fungi help?<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In some parts of Minnesota and Wisconsin, buckthorn is dying,
possibly from canker rot, root rot and other fungal diseases. Researchers are
trying to identify the fungi infecting the trees and how they may be used to
manage buckthorn stands. Employing fungi would reduce the use of herbicides, an
important benefit when working near water or other places where protection of
other resources is paramount. The project began in January 2023 and will continue
for another two years. See the <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/research/research-projects/biological-control-buckthorn-using-fungi"><b>project
website</b></a> for more information and updates. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ3yyVzhJXMItGAARtNidzCVrEvOtw2MITfQ8jFY11QNINbKfa5XH08Noj_0-YAMZvV-CLzsibQDjGCVlZIB-SzLtWkE-83uxSywYlTVqYaa4I6XACjMRLWW1P1owgoCGo48hCmLiCYJD1oPlUUNS4lVYyxGfzOKExZ18AfGKnvQOM_B2NxzVMg1KZaw/s718/Crown%20rust%20on%20buckthorn.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="515" data-original-width="718" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ3yyVzhJXMItGAARtNidzCVrEvOtw2MITfQ8jFY11QNINbKfa5XH08Noj_0-YAMZvV-CLzsibQDjGCVlZIB-SzLtWkE-83uxSywYlTVqYaa4I6XACjMRLWW1P1owgoCGo48hCmLiCYJD1oPlUUNS4lVYyxGfzOKExZ18AfGKnvQOM_B2NxzVMg1KZaw/s320/Crown%20rust%20on%20buckthorn.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Orange growths of crown rust on common buckthorn.</td></tr></tbody></table>Another fungus being investigated for control of common
buckthorn is <i>Puccinia coronata</i>, the rust fungus that causes crown rust
of oats. The fungus uses buckthorn as an intermediate host and is visible
during summer as orange, fuzzy-looking spots on leaves and stems. Some negative
effects of the fungus have been found on buckthorn, so researchers have started
identifying those strains and studying their effects on buckthorn growth and
mortality. The study began in January 2023 and continues for two more years. More
information is on the <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/research/research-projects/effects-puccinia-species-complex-common-buckthorn"><b>project
website.</b></a> <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>What about goats?</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A study to evaluate the effectiveness of goat grazing on
buckthorn ended in 2021. Researchers found that although goats can control
buckthorn, the benefit is temporary. Buckthorn can rebound after grazing unless
other control measures follow. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Grazing goats are also at risk of eating snails or slugs
that are intermediate hosts for the brainworm <i>Parastronguloides tenuis</i>,
which can cause fatal neurological disease. Co-grazing waterfowl with goats has
been suggested to reduce that risk, so the study also examined the effect of waterfowl
on the abundance of snails or slugs. In a <a href="https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/258166/Can%20Co-Grazing%20Waterfowl%20Reduce%20Brainworm%20Risk%20for%20Goats%20Browsing%20in%20Natural%20Areas%3f.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"><b>2022
paper published in EcoHealth</b></a>, the researchers found that where goats grazed
alone, the abundance of snails and slugs increased, but where ducks and geese
were included with goats, the increase didn’t occur. They also found that
waterfowl didn’t affect the overall diversity of the snails and slugs, which is
important to protect populations of native gastropods. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The researchers point out that while waterfowl can lower the
numbers of snails and slugs and therefore reduce the risk to goats of acquiring
brainworms, more study is needed to learn if this also reduces the incidence of
the disease. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">More challenges of goat grazing are discussed in this paper
and several others linked at the <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/research/research-projects/goat-grazing-invasive-plant-control"><b>project
website.</b></a> <o:p></o:p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-667752052322986012023-11-09T21:57:00.009-06:002023-11-13T12:13:30.100-06:00Moonseed Vine: A Poisonous Grapevine Look-Alike<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHRmI26cJoCmqj76keSQrKSySEhTVz9l0I9aH0EU70hL8DY_XJojQKK1jR5PdRIPa4RKWcT4fkRUHv9ch_xRj6Va4WZNYUxuCeyHPttVT15HowLqejG_ttS8M2PmL2PHdsDwmn0OH7BFKHICXAAsCf7EznFrrpH9Bh-g_5Hv8t_PEOknj_m5LuYrmYXA/s954/Moonseed%20vine%20in%20fall.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><img alt="Moonseed vines with twining stems and fading leaves." border="0" data-original-height="563" data-original-width="954" height="378" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHRmI26cJoCmqj76keSQrKSySEhTVz9l0I9aH0EU70hL8DY_XJojQKK1jR5PdRIPa4RKWcT4fkRUHv9ch_xRj6Va4WZNYUxuCeyHPttVT15HowLqejG_ttS8M2PmL2PHdsDwmn0OH7BFKHICXAAsCf7EznFrrpH9Bh-g_5Hv8t_PEOknj_m5LuYrmYXA/w640-h378/Moonseed%20vine%20in%20fall.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Moonseed vine, <i>Menispermum canadense</i>, in early fall. Although most of its leaves have now fallen, it can still be identified -- and avoided, if foraging.</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Moonseed vine (<i>Menispermum canadense</i>), also called
Canada moonseed, is a twining vine of deciduous forests and riverbanks, thriving
in moist or mesic soils and partial shade. Although the vines have now shed their
leaves, moonseed vine can still be identified by other characteristics, and for
foragers of wild foods, the distinctions could be lifesaving.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The danger comes from mistaking moonseed vine for riverbank
grape (<i>Vitis riparia</i>). Both vines produce clusters of deep blue or
purple, spherical fruits that can remain on the vines through winter. Unlike
edible grapes, however, moonseed fruits are poisonous. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">That’s because moonseed vine contains alkaloids, compounds many
plants produce for defense against herbivores. Although alkaloids have been and
are used medicinally, they can also be poisonous. Several sources report that
eating moonseed vine, especially the fruits and seeds, can be fatal because of its alkaloids. The Minnesota Poison Control System includes
moonseed on its list of toxic plants and advises calling Poison Control if any
part of the plant is eaten.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Fortunately, poisoning can be avoided. There are reliable
ways to tell the difference between moonseed and riverbank grape, even in fall
and winter. Here’s what to look for.</p><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Seeds</b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd2xiNetTdy1vJLyDsNC57o4odJuTDosOyx2aFR2XlAclsLl6ym8wL5bJQ_3NZ2aWGSVsRJifRZfMxU3vmhIH0e3iTMD2IDjw2YBl_60bhgj1WQYz9EkRvBdfNdbd_jsWblx8RAqcu0IVtMjK-1Woi41JehdBE_PAygMzgcFZV-buOLB1Pf2FregDItg/s359/Seeds%20of%20moonseed%20vine.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Mash fruits and crescent seeds of moonseed vine." border="0" data-original-height="270" data-original-width="359" height="151" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd2xiNetTdy1vJLyDsNC57o4odJuTDosOyx2aFR2XlAclsLl6ym8wL5bJQ_3NZ2aWGSVsRJifRZfMxU3vmhIH0e3iTMD2IDjw2YBl_60bhgj1WQYz9EkRvBdfNdbd_jsWblx8RAqcu0IVtMjK-1Woi41JehdBE_PAygMzgcFZV-buOLB1Pf2FregDItg/w200-h151/Seeds%20of%20moonseed%20vine.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div><br /></div>Moonseed fruits contain single, flat seeds that look like crescent
moons. In contrast, riverbank grape seeds are egg-shaped, and there are usually several inside each fruit. This <a href="https://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity-old/herbarium/shrubs/mencan_vitrip_seed_comparis.jpg"><b>photo from the University of Wisconsin</b></a> shows them side by side. <p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<div style="text-align: left;"><b>Twining vs. grasping vines</b></div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Moonseed is a twining vine. It clambers over other
vegetation or climbs upward by wrapping its stems around small trees or shrubs.
Riverbank grape is a grasping vine. It uses tendrils, modified leaves,
to clutch onto supports and hold the vines upright. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAUbDwM5plJ1hMlgWmhwHEhiMHdyxmct3Vi703fDKUyE9YGoIExSv6NObUIhnTCD3mUZ-G-4AtIm0ERV4q4i4RVxCnR_4b4ONMwXJLEYGXxiDYBFlvr6-Vg5vgkuoelcKweozpxb_kktUQDiUMKNJ2a7K3h3NsNFYH4DadSyorDhkznAlm9BTm_Uz8ug/s2977/Twining%20vs%20grasping%20stems.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of two photos showing moonseed vines with twining stems and grapevine stems with coiled, grasping tendrils." border="0" data-original-height="2091" data-original-width="2977" height="380" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAUbDwM5plJ1hMlgWmhwHEhiMHdyxmct3Vi703fDKUyE9YGoIExSv6NObUIhnTCD3mUZ-G-4AtIm0ERV4q4i4RVxCnR_4b4ONMwXJLEYGXxiDYBFlvr6-Vg5vgkuoelcKweozpxb_kktUQDiUMKNJ2a7K3h3NsNFYH4DadSyorDhkznAlm9BTm_Uz8ug/w540-h380/Twining%20vs%20grasping%20stems.jpg" width="540" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Twining stems of moonseed vine, left, and grasping stems of riverbank grape, right.</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Stems and bark</b></div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The young stems of moonseed vine are brown or greenish brown
and hairy, although as the stems age, they lose the hairs. Stems grow as large as 2 cm in diameter ( a little less than an inch) and have ridged or fluted bark. </p>Younger stems of grapevine are brown or reddish brown and hairless. Mature stems grow up to 20 cm in diameter (about 8 inches) and have brown, shaggy bark.<div><br /></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvU2UXZlHWDG3Vfzt3kf5UvAu47ModhxVyjvMwVCsC3ABArKgUf_B4IhI26QPAmBz0pFN-nZQIRYDAfXGULPEL2aEk1BV2RcaBB_Ho80Yis-2gPe9StVXVreRUrlNv1m59TvlR7mMJ-pzPLay6-tPiU3BBykDC6UnZfSg42mpBpZZfO_8u6ownrh0E0w/s4008/Moonseed%20and%20grapevine%20stems.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1947" data-original-width="4008" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvU2UXZlHWDG3Vfzt3kf5UvAu47ModhxVyjvMwVCsC3ABArKgUf_B4IhI26QPAmBz0pFN-nZQIRYDAfXGULPEL2aEk1BV2RcaBB_Ho80Yis-2gPe9StVXVreRUrlNv1m59TvlR7mMJ-pzPLay6-tPiU3BBykDC6UnZfSg42mpBpZZfO_8u6ownrh0E0w/w640-h310/Moonseed%20and%20grapevine%20stems.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Young moonseed stems, left, are brown or brownish green and hairy. Young stems of riverbank grape, center, are reddish brown and smooth. Mature stems of riverbank grape, right, are brown and shaggy. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Leaf scars and buds</b></div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Leaf scars are marks on woody stems left by petioles when
leaves are shed in fall. Inside them are small, often raised dots called bundle
scars, created when strands of vascular cells (water- and food-conducting
cells) are severed when leaves fall off the stem. Buds – next year’s protected
growth – sit above the leaf scars. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The leaf scars of moonseed vine are typically 2-3 mm long
and wide, oval to circular in outline, and concave. They are often notched or
split at the top. Inside the leaf scar, the bundle scars are arranged in a
faint, broken circle or oval. The bud is barely visible above the leaf scar; it
appears to be embedded in the stem, protruding a millimeter or less above
the surrounding tissue. <o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC5eP0lQk8ydnZ48Fi51_UzzLpXzcVfKf-J_l0a0heA6iGNdel_nCEznMKohxjn32mTM1wqkqrVFRqpBk3Q0e2pSMvNx6h2m4kBJjounx0wkfwTbOspcz6RPsVH8YlMKR1jYv2M3T0kETclWV5HuRouxmRGnWUWYJIW0DRC2xtXB0HjazPFTweIeXbsA/s2819/Moonseed%20leaf%20scar.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1709" data-original-width="2819" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC5eP0lQk8ydnZ48Fi51_UzzLpXzcVfKf-J_l0a0heA6iGNdel_nCEznMKohxjn32mTM1wqkqrVFRqpBk3Q0e2pSMvNx6h2m4kBJjounx0wkfwTbOspcz6RPsVH8YlMKR1jYv2M3T0kETclWV5HuRouxmRGnWUWYJIW0DRC2xtXB0HjazPFTweIeXbsA/w389-h236/Moonseed%20leaf%20scar.jpg" width="389" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Leaf scar and bud of moonseed vine viewed from the front (left) and side (right). </td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal">The leaf scars of riverbank grape are typically 2-4 mm long
and wide and roughly triangular, semicircular, or U-shaped. The perimeter of
the leaf scar may be ridged, but the leaf scar is not noticeably concave. To the side of the leaf scars are
linear marks called stipule scars.(Stipules are thread-like or leafy structures
at the bases of petioles in some plants.) Bundle scars are hard to see, but there are several. The bud is brown or reddish brown and 3-5 mm long. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioP9yN09GqrafadaBK_lbd9qigWexeeEvLroHLPFUF4lNA9yExhmoem7NBC6oX9BxQkS1MaJEi63AGaV3m4X8UtBZYZLpsdoZbtBwNhtG49HnRvpYJS31Ws00KVpxXy1PC1gt1pdK0BVF6STUZZlAWLQv_78Prwv0vNokuOgb65Ecm49LRMO1S8c546Q/s3284/Grapevine%20leaf%20scar.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1488" data-original-width="3284" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioP9yN09GqrafadaBK_lbd9qigWexeeEvLroHLPFUF4lNA9yExhmoem7NBC6oX9BxQkS1MaJEi63AGaV3m4X8UtBZYZLpsdoZbtBwNhtG49HnRvpYJS31Ws00KVpxXy1PC1gt1pdK0BVF6STUZZlAWLQv_78Prwv0vNokuOgb65Ecm49LRMO1S8c546Q/w426-h193/Grapevine%20leaf%20scar.jpg" width="426" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Leaf scar, bud and stipule scar of riverbank grape viewed from the front (left) and side (right).</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Leaves, if still present</b></div>
<p class="MsoNormal">Both moonseed vine and riverbank grape have alternate, lobed
leaves, but they have different margins (edges) and points of petiole attachment. These features can also be found on fallen leaves if they’re still
intact. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The margins of moonseed leaves are smooth, although the
lobes may have pointed tips. In addition, the petioles are attached inside the
leaf blade, even if just barely, making a peltate or shield-shaped leaf blade. The leaves of riverbank grape are sharply and coarsely toothed,
and the petiole is attached at the edge of the blade, at its base. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAUL9YNuM4YewxhempNqJ9rpYHIYARWvftrCrkAFnuRTVCl2XfVX04yN1Esur7OKheBcIKeEhev0Voql75zbIraHWOnbij7RGjVisYidu_U54-LE6rAkhB9-nETh5qMQ78PHXMIJaFn6WGN5EYONtdCpueXgU1eV6IJAaCuL6YiGJP0LF-pyTm3_aimA/s3213/Grapevine%20and%20moonseed%20leaves.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1408" data-original-width="3213" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAUL9YNuM4YewxhempNqJ9rpYHIYARWvftrCrkAFnuRTVCl2XfVX04yN1Esur7OKheBcIKeEhev0Voql75zbIraHWOnbij7RGjVisYidu_U54-LE6rAkhB9-nETh5qMQ78PHXMIJaFn6WGN5EYONtdCpueXgU1eV6IJAaCuL6YiGJP0LF-pyTm3_aimA/w570-h250/Grapevine%20and%20moonseed%20leaves.jpg" width="570" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Riverbank grape, left, has lobed, coarsely toothed leaves. Moonseed vine (right) also has <br />lobed leaves, but the margins are smooth, not toothed.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNVqzT2URTGY8B0LP3y_KxJeJ6bN4W-2kBJnFhLyyITdvytAP-tdjjI-xoZXVj_fQ0pvfSKJ5eQdIol7WNBdQnO6_eGWcA5dCw4fUfBWBtbIbph7LH6n8H9B2-e7zhXa1pO6XWBNpg1eQQSks4b9GlQmy_fA0L9FzmOhWL7OuwUREbCGl7PhZI5aA7ow/s3859/Grapevine%20and%20moonseed%20petiole%20attachment.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNVqzT2URTGY8B0LP3y_KxJeJ6bN4W-2kBJnFhLyyITdvytAP-tdjjI-xoZXVj_fQ0pvfSKJ5eQdIol7WNBdQnO6_eGWcA5dCw4fUfBWBtbIbph7LH6n8H9B2-e7zhXa1pO6XWBNpg1eQQSks4b9GlQmy_fA0L9FzmOhWL7OuwUREbCGl7PhZI5aA7ow/w575-h207/Grapevine%20and%20moonseed%20petiole%20attachment.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The petiole of riverbank grape, left, is attached at the edge of the blade. The petiole of <br />moonseed vine, right, is attached just inside the blade. </td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: center;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b>Rhizomes and roots</b></div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Although aboveground characteristics are enough to positively identify
moonseed and grapevine, belowground structures can also be helpful if it's possible -- and permissible -- to uncover or uproot them.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Moonseed vines have yellow rhizomes, underground stems that
grow horizontally and produce roots and shoots along their length. Because of their
color and traditional use to treat various ailments, Dakota Indians call it yellow
medicine, the namesake of Yellow Medicine River and Yellow Medicine County in
southwest Minnesota. The homeland of the Dakota is <i>Pezihutazizi Kapi</i>,
“the place where we dig for yellow medicine.”<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">No source for this article describes grapevine as having rhizomes,
but its woody, brown stems can become buried and grow roots at their nodes. These
rhizome-like stems look nothing like the slender, yellow rhizomes of moonseed
vine, however. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6wf4asvVJLytkk_eDTdsQ1HcsOsMdI5swxaY0Dy4enc7LWRBB91UVYWLkGDztkoZvSGA1KH7BCsE-7oTRNJLmBDMINlJ8wBjg4_saq57kd9i0mYZUTHP65Wtpy4SIx0cQU-OtK-AOHt6Dw4hm4xvQWUhZWXILGfw_Y7_i9be1HixDDxRuRhtpXOeCVg/s3983/Rhizomes%20and%20roots.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1335" data-original-width="3983" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6wf4asvVJLytkk_eDTdsQ1HcsOsMdI5swxaY0Dy4enc7LWRBB91UVYWLkGDztkoZvSGA1KH7BCsE-7oTRNJLmBDMINlJ8wBjg4_saq57kd9i0mYZUTHP65Wtpy4SIx0cQU-OtK-AOHt6Dw4hm4xvQWUhZWXILGfw_Y7_i9be1HixDDxRuRhtpXOeCVg/w640-h214/Rhizomes%20and%20roots.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The rhizomes of moonseed vine, left, are yellow. The roots and rhizome-like stems of riverbank grape, right, are brown.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Moonseed vine is found in much of Minnesota but is more
abundant in the southern part of the state. Its broader range generally covers
the eastern half of the US. The vine flowers in late spring and early summer.
For more information, see the webpages from Minnesota Wildflowers and The
Friends of the Wildflower Garden, Inc. Both are linked below.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR13AuCNPQdryRQ-DfQddj8tgkcz6riETeMBbNYloxfeDSPfyd7UiW9UzIKAwGhv-H08DB8PCz12sKIzhTGjj0zPX0qbm2Pm9s0_40ldxidrd7f1nx8x4Z99Q3scdW1-7VqKzW77jUkrJCPcdBAQCNAB1VgLyP_yAWZ_4w-kkqjMGqBrzGDoFJGhLpgQ/s3368/Moonseed%20range%20maps.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1141" data-original-width="3368" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR13AuCNPQdryRQ-DfQddj8tgkcz6riETeMBbNYloxfeDSPfyd7UiW9UzIKAwGhv-H08DB8PCz12sKIzhTGjj0zPX0qbm2Pm9s0_40ldxidrd7f1nx8x4Z99Q3scdW1-7VqKzW77jUkrJCPcdBAQCNAB1VgLyP_yAWZ_4w-kkqjMGqBrzGDoFJGhLpgQ/w640-h216/Moonseed%20range%20maps.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Range maps of moonseed vine, from the USDA Plants Database.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Riverbank grape is also found in most of Minnesota except
for several counties in the far north and northeast. More broadly, its range
extends from the Mid-Atlantic states into New England and west through the
Dakotas. <o:p></o:p></p><b>References</b><p></p></div><div><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/shrub/canada-moonseed">Minnesota
Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/commonmoonseed.html">Friends
of the Wildflower Garden</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/plants400/Profiles/mn/Menispermum">Oxford
Plants 400</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity-old/herbarium/shrubs/mencan01.htm">University
of Wisconsin – Green Bay, Cofrin Center for Biodiversity Herbarium</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://mnpoison.org/wp-content/uploads/plant-guide-list.pdf">Minnesota
Poison Control System</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database
(http://plants.usda.gov, 10/14/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
USA.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://mrbdc.mnsu.edu/place-names-hawk-creek-yellow-medicine#:~:text=The%20Yellow%20Medicine%20River%20got,used%20it%20as%20a%20medicine.">Minnesota
River Basin Data Center</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.uppersiouxcommunity-nsn.gov/">Upper
Sioux Community</a><o:p></o:p></p><b></b></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-52169730691023200472023-10-11T12:37:00.003-05:002023-10-12T11:08:33.868-05:00Flinging Spores and Fern ID<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1SpH6BbZ5Hhwi4YkL-7ftqfaz-SwBKr959kqWBAMLGCuGFpK7ifaQD3-DbS8zNylKiI_063JlvBI_lCPhI6asxZJJnxYJMQ8xsipzyv_qW-BnI7gxq0b5dJ1ofj0LIOXItcUamqGW6qjUhbSgx44Zvw6mmfzZUf48dyxpM0tOFPTiVNnVR2QxaJh6Nw/s2142/Lady%20fern%20frond%20with%20sori.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Sori on the back of a lady fern frond. Dozens of brown sporangia emerge from beneath the edge of a nearly translucent indusium." border="0" data-original-height="1269" data-original-width="2142" height="380" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1SpH6BbZ5Hhwi4YkL-7ftqfaz-SwBKr959kqWBAMLGCuGFpK7ifaQD3-DbS8zNylKiI_063JlvBI_lCPhI6asxZJJnxYJMQ8xsipzyv_qW-BnI7gxq0b5dJ1ofj0LIOXItcUamqGW6qjUhbSgx44Zvw6mmfzZUf48dyxpM0tOFPTiVNnVR2QxaJh6Nw/w640-h380/Lady%20fern%20frond%20with%20sori.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">The back of this lady fern frond (<i>Athyrium filix-femina</i>)
is covered with sori, clusters of spore-forming bodies called sporangia. Each
sorus holds dozens of them, all covered by a protective flap of tissue called
an indusium. When a sporangium matures and dries, a line of cells over the top of
the sporangium contracts, causing it to fling open and catapult its spores. You
can watch it happen <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NsDVLkyeqU"><b>here</b></a>
in a sorus of an unidentified fern.</div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOeIBUamAZnxJfv81KUke_QzJUJsrPWxyJup0QrZ9MmNzLfuIdeoGzjSy6iStY53UBmKhMUeZ3Hhek6hWXfBLuFTZBl9T1tW6LQr29rDzQW93MGJzBIXwoxN7I_TH1Q_268W3CVZLysao-L1eUWG4Hxp-2fF3gr9uGBTqE9iwUUrfebf7hYz6jANQiyg/s928/Lady%20fern%20spore%20print.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="582" data-original-width="928" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOeIBUamAZnxJfv81KUke_QzJUJsrPWxyJup0QrZ9MmNzLfuIdeoGzjSy6iStY53UBmKhMUeZ3Hhek6hWXfBLuFTZBl9T1tW6LQr29rDzQW93MGJzBIXwoxN7I_TH1Q_268W3CVZLysao-L1eUWG4Hxp-2fF3gr9uGBTqE9iwUUrfebf7hYz6jANQiyg/w400-h251/Lady%20fern%20spore%20print.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A spore print made by a lady fern frond. The spores are so small they look like dust. </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Unlike seeds, spores don’t contain embryonic plants. They’re
little more than tiny packages of DNA that give rise to the next generation of
ferns. They do this by first growing a small, heart-shaped prothallus, a body
that produces egg and sperm cells. The flagellated sperm cells swim through a
film of water to fertilize the egg cells, which then grow into the ferns we
recognize. Because water is needed for this kind of reproduction, many ferns rely
on damp or humid habitats.</div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiczqDiJi8DFyt_QgVI6fV9lecdVrBAjvTl4YGLuZtKcTCAoIdGMUD-MXOXgqGNlU1RtxmJg6iAX8YcKlz4-GJzgX9PLGfLNj9hRSYl23vs-IdV8WFfs1yX0SFxaZYuvbLfEYNhQZ2AGFwSMHikdvlgnVHOD-gqTwgDnk0pgR7omEASa5zotWaeyt2KIA/s2144/Lady%20fern%20sori%20magnified.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A closeup of the back of a lady fern frond with a labeled sorus, sporangia and indusium." border="0" data-original-height="1398" data-original-width="2144" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiczqDiJi8DFyt_QgVI6fV9lecdVrBAjvTl4YGLuZtKcTCAoIdGMUD-MXOXgqGNlU1RtxmJg6iAX8YcKlz4-GJzgX9PLGfLNj9hRSYl23vs-IdV8WFfs1yX0SFxaZYuvbLfEYNhQZ2AGFwSMHikdvlgnVHOD-gqTwgDnk0pgR7omEASa5zotWaeyt2KIA/w433-h283/Lady%20fern%20sori%20magnified.JPG" width="433" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lady fern is identified in part by the shape of its sori. They are usually curved or <br />horseshoe-shaped. They appear in late summer and early fall.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmBz5WtzL3lRX0-K5cngTP0CS8pVNIUXVDo5p3C7EUMVk1Cnrmvlu8BsEI26QXSXcPoXgBhWPJ1yiibgYuX3KSlDT_CfPz8ahuEklU-m8E-XjE8e14xCTmWPIW51tu0JpPspKRCiMlVFMlpp7buJGXqx3I3cBR9YO94OyfigjPx17hMKr3t9Q8fIhPPQ/s578/Ostrich%20fern%20fertile%20fronds.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A cluster of brown fertile fronds of ostrich fern. Their shapes resemble ostrich feathers." border="0" data-original-height="578" data-original-width="363" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmBz5WtzL3lRX0-K5cngTP0CS8pVNIUXVDo5p3C7EUMVk1Cnrmvlu8BsEI26QXSXcPoXgBhWPJ1yiibgYuX3KSlDT_CfPz8ahuEklU-m8E-XjE8e14xCTmWPIW51tu0JpPspKRCiMlVFMlpp7buJGXqx3I3cBR9YO94OyfigjPx17hMKr3t9Q8fIhPPQ/w201-h320/Ostrich%20fern%20fertile%20fronds.JPG" width="201" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fertile fronds of ostrich fern.</td></tr></tbody></table>Not all ferns have sori that look like those of lady fern.
Some are located along the edges of the frond, some have indusia of different
shapes or sizes, and some have no indusia at all. Other ferns, such as ostrich
fern (<i>Matteuccia struthiopteris</i>) and sensitive fern (<i>Onoclea
sensibilis</i>), produce spores on fronds specialized for that purpose – in other
words, the whole frond is devoted to forming spores. For all these variations, timing
is important. Sori and reproductive fronds (aka fertile fronds) may appear only
at certain times of the year, and the appearance of sporangia and sori can vary depending on how old they are. </div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><br />Both reproductive and vegetative characteristics are helpful
to identify a fern. Here are some resources to learn more about fern anatomy,
biology and identification. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/beauty/ferns/index.shtml">Ferns.</a> U.S. Forest Service. This site may take a few tries to load.</li><li><a href="https://wisflora.herbarium.wisc.edu/resources/Keys_pdfs/KEYS_Ferns_of_Wisconsin.pdf">Dichotomous
Key to Ferns of Wisconsin</a>, by Tim Gerber, UW-La Crosse. </li><li><a href="https://www.cedarcreek.umn.edu/plants1/index4/kfern.htm">Key to Fern
Traits,</a> by Areca Treon. This is a key to ferns in Cedar Creek Ecosystem
Science Reserve near Bethel, MN. </li><li>Ferns of Minnesota, by Rolla Tryon. Illustrated by Wilma
Monserud. University of Minnesota Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8166-0932-2. </li><li>Ferns and Lycophytes of Minnesota: The Complete Guide to
Species Identification, by Welby R. Smith (author) and Richard Haug (photographer).
University of Minnesota Press, 2023. ISBN 1517914663. </li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p>For more information about lady fern, try these sites:</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/fern/lady-fern">Minnesota
Wildflowers</a></li><li><a href="https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/ladyfern.html">Friends
of Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden</a></li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-78916572825225591272023-09-17T14:12:00.005-05:002024-02-10T09:23:14.956-06:00Snakeroot's Secret<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIBvzkVSKqYVu4J3K0yXHoMpED9xUBLXd9PnpUCUSNHkiObLV3mRMaf0LUILISIdv2UJn33t1F4_W5e-pqpEBR-0ZTVl3-6dskCDqbszDVAeymBUu5YiSjGevxbYOofuF4cDJvpT0ggSbexh_JkBNxXycWeuE_7gS5zLkWt3fqK_EYIBuV92IAjr6Afw/s909/White%20snakeroot%20Ageratina%20altissima.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="593" data-original-width="909" height="418" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIBvzkVSKqYVu4J3K0yXHoMpED9xUBLXd9PnpUCUSNHkiObLV3mRMaf0LUILISIdv2UJn33t1F4_W5e-pqpEBR-0ZTVl3-6dskCDqbszDVAeymBUu5YiSjGevxbYOofuF4cDJvpT0ggSbexh_JkBNxXycWeuE_7gS5zLkWt3fqK_EYIBuV92IAjr6Afw/w640-h418/White%20snakeroot%20Ageratina%20altissima.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">White snakeroot, <i>Ageratina altissima</i>, flowering in a woodland edge in August.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p>In the fall of 1818, a 35-year-old pioneer woman fell ill
and took to her bed in a crude dwelling near Pigeon Creek in Indiana. She had
been caring for her sick relatives and a neighbor before she came down with the
same symptoms: lethargy, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and worse.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">She had no medical care, so her health declined quickly. In
a matter of days, she slipped into a coma, but before she lost consciousness,
she called her two children to her side. When she died, her nine-year-old son,
Abraham, is said to have been devastated. He would later write that his mother,
Nancy Hanks Lincoln, made him all that he was. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Called sick stomach and later milk sickness, the mysterious illness
was a menace on the 1800s wooded frontier. It sickened and killed thousands and
terrified thousands more, because its cause was unknown. Faced with the
agonizing and unexplained deaths of their family and friends, many pioneers
abandoned their settlements for what they hoped would be healthier locations. In
some cases, entire towns were deserted, as told by a writer to the <i>Farmers’
Register</i> in 1834:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><b>A Village Depopulated by the
Milk Sickness</b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9vnFLkpP1VnZ2-WeaUHrmfAIwzNu10tHBGVBTh_h3sD0CZboXG2csi6z5fzBlOLTn4WJ5kBIAiKOV28f_GcaKnR7wIwQ5xgOakpCgKceCLAI1_aGQ9XGRM2ouzqgialnUhB_Lnu4iMz-bAtZARdnsPl7mM7Dl2_YZM1s2YmU-xSpr8Kiga8NbcYtn6Q/s1197/A%20village%20depopulated.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1197" data-original-width="1123" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9vnFLkpP1VnZ2-WeaUHrmfAIwzNu10tHBGVBTh_h3sD0CZboXG2csi6z5fzBlOLTn4WJ5kBIAiKOV28f_GcaKnR7wIwQ5xgOakpCgKceCLAI1_aGQ9XGRM2ouzqgialnUhB_Lnu4iMz-bAtZARdnsPl7mM7Dl2_YZM1s2YmU-xSpr8Kiga8NbcYtn6Q/s320/A%20village%20depopulated.jpg" width="300" /></a></b></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">The following extract is of a
letter from a traveler dated at St. Louis:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">A few miles below Alton, on the
Mississippi, I passed a deserted village, the whole population of which had
been destroyed by the “milk sickness.” The hamlet consisted of a couple of
mills and a number of frame houses, not one of which was now tenanted; but the
dried weeds of last year choaked [sic] the threshold of the latter, and the
raceways of the mills were lumbered up with floating timber, while the green
slime of two summers hung heavy on the motionless wheels. Not an object but
ourselves moved through the town; and the very crows themselves seemed to make
a recruit around the fatal place when they came in view of the thickly sown
burial ground on the skirts of the deserted village. (1)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Although the settlers often found the illness again in their new
homes, their knowledge was building. They recognized that cattle stricken
with “the trembles,” a shaking weakness that progressed to more severe illness,
could cause a similar condition in people who drank the cows’ milk or ate their
beef, butter, or cheese. The illness tended to appear later in the season, from
mid-summer through fall, and it was worse in dry years. Newcomers to areas
stricken with the illness were advised to avoid eating beef or dairy products
from July to the first frost.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">That good advice likely prevented many cases of illness, but
the ultimate cause of milk sickness remained unknown, or at least debated, for
decades. In hindsight, it didn’t have to be. Unfortunately for many who would
later become ill, an early and accurate warning was largely missed, in part
because it came from a woman. Actually, from two women.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In Illinois around 1830, Anna Pierce Hobbs Bixby, a nurse
and midwife called Doctor Anna, was grieved about the cause of milk sickness. It
had killed her mother and sister-in-law and it had disabled her father, who developed a chronic,
disabling form of the illness called “the slows.” She suspected the cause was
something cattle were eating, so she followed them into their wooded pasture to
record what they ate.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">While she was there, she is said to have met an elderly
Shawnee woman hiding from forced relocation to a reservation in Kansas. After the
elderly woman learned what Doctor Anna was looking for, she identified white
snakeroot as the plant that was making animals and people sick. The women
parted, and the fate of the Shawnee elder is lost in history.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Now known by the scientific name <i>Ageratina altissima</i>
(formerly <i>Eupatorium rugosum</i>, <i>E. ageratoides</i>, and <i>E.
urticaefolium</i>), snakeroot’s phenology matched the seasonality of the
sickness. It flowers in mid-summer into early fall, coinciding with the time
milk sickness tended to occur. Its habitat was another good match. Snakeroot
grew in woodlands, including the forested pastures where cattle then commonly grazed,
and it persisted in drought. When they had no choice, cattle ate snakeroot. <o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPq-xysV9uVT-p2YBPrrPbgl0kxSohEKvHXYG3MjT9b_izbOPsJwccAdZBLrAJj9p1vlTQIMnpDLd2JIZewolfkTziE9xA_TTQE4vriC1738dt5XEUN4V9U9fw1VbOu8DWroy95zeiMEU_Sy2_3UiYIEhqlY9c4uOJZZ9NZ_DeHTJuuZ_lrRGa8LZ6BQ/s4148/White%20snakeroot%20range%20USDA%20Plants%20Database.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1437" data-original-width="4148" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPq-xysV9uVT-p2YBPrrPbgl0kxSohEKvHXYG3MjT9b_izbOPsJwccAdZBLrAJj9p1vlTQIMnpDLd2JIZewolfkTziE9xA_TTQE4vriC1738dt5XEUN4V9U9fw1VbOu8DWroy95zeiMEU_Sy2_3UiYIEhqlY9c4uOJZZ9NZ_DeHTJuuZ_lrRGa8LZ6BQ/w640-h222/White%20snakeroot%20range%20USDA%20Plants%20Database.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">White snakeroot range in North America (left) and the upper Midwest (right). USDA NRCS 2023.</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal">With this new-found knowledge, Doctor Anna began
experimenting. She fed the plant to animals, including calves, and found that
they developed the trembles. Convinced that she had found the cause of milk
sickness, she spread the word. She grew a garden of white snakeroot to teach
others what it looked like, and she urged farmers to pull it out of their
pastures. They did, and her advice is thought to have saved many lives, at
least in southeastern Illinois.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">But that’s as far as it went. Whether her work was dismissed
or not widely published or both, it didn’t get much traction. Instead,
physicians and settlers alike continued to speculate about the cause of milk
sickness. They blamed all kinds of things: arsenic or other metals, bacteria,
bad water, poison oak, poison ivy, and other agents. Some blamed miasmas, imaginary, poisonous exhalations from the earth that misted the
vegetation and sickened the cattle. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">As the debate continued through the 1800s, milk sickness nearly
vanished. That was another mystery, although a welcome one. Two hundred years
on, we know why it disappeared: Cattle came to be pastured not in the woods but
in cultivated pastures where snakeroot was excluded, and commercial operations
combined and diluted milk from many sources. If the contaminant was present in the
milk, it was at lower concentrations, too low to produce the severe illness
caused by chronic consumption of tainted meat and dairy products. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Even as milk sickness waned, research continued into its
cause. The poisonous-plant hypothesis eventually held after other possibilities
were eliminated, and snakeroot was finally confirmed as the cause of the
illness in the early 1900s, almost 100 years after the Shawnee woman and Doctor
Anna warned of its dangers. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In 1928 or 1929, James F. Couch, a chemist with the USDA, identified
the toxin in snakeroot that had caused so much suffering. He described it as “a
viscous . . . oil with a pleasant aromatic odor” and named it tremetol after
the tremors it caused (2). The compound is present in all parts of the plant
and is also found in rayless goldenrod, aka jimmyweed (<i>Isocoma pluriflora</i>),
a plant native to the Southwest. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Milk sickness, or chronic tremetol poisoning, is rare now,
but the University of Minnesota includes snakeroot among the <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/forage-harvest-and-storage/plants-poisonous-livestock">plants
known to be poisonous to livestock</a>. While there is some concern that a
return to small-scale, “natural milk” could result in cases of (now treatable)
milk sickness, today white snakeroot is more often appreciated as a late-season
source of nectar or pollen for bees, wasps, and flies and as a likely host
plant for moth larvae (3). It’s available from many native plant nurseries –
with some history attached. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">To learn how to identify white snakeroot, see this page from
the <a href="https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/whitesnakeroot.html">Friends
of Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden</a>.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Cited References</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(1) A Village Depopulated by the milk sickness. Farmers' Register. Oct1834,
Vol. 2 Issue 5, p308-309. 2p. [Obtained through the Hennepin County Library’s database
of <span class="standard-view-style">American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical
Periodicals Collection: Series 2</span>.]<span class="standard-view-style"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span class="standard-view-style"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">(2) Trembles (or milk sickness).
James F. Couch. Circular No. 306, United States Department of Agriculture. 1933<span style="color: #535353;">. </span></span></span><a href="https://archive.org/details/tremblesormilks306couc/page/n1/mode/2up"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">https://archive.org/details/tremblesormilks306couc/page/n1/mode/2up</span></a><span class="standard-view-style"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #535353; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(3) <a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/wh_snakeroot.htm">White
snakeroot</a>. Illinois Wildflowers, website accessed 9-17-23. <o:p></o:p></p><div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast"><b>Additional References</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="https://www.ncpedia.org/milk-sickness">Milk Sickness</a>. Curtis Wood,
NCPedia, 2006. <span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27792690">The “Slows”: The Torment of
Milksickness on the Midwest Frontier.</a> Walter J. Daly, Indiana Magazine of
History 102 (1): 29-40, March 2006.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27787425" style="letter-spacing: -0.25pt;">The Death of Nancy Hanks Lincoln</a><span style="color: #343332; letter-spacing: -0.25pt;">.
Philip D. Jordan, Indiana Magazine of History 40 (2): 103-110, June 1944.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_4_Special_Issue_February_2013/5.pdf" style="letter-spacing: -0.25pt;">Religion
and Removal among the Shawnee from Ohio into Kansas.</a><span style="color: #343332; letter-spacing: -0.25pt;"> Brady DeSanti,
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 3 (4): 46-56.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/how-1800s-midwife-solved-poisionous-mystery-180982343/">How
an 1800s Midwife Solved a Poisonous Mystery.</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"> </span>Will
McCarthy, Smithsonian Magazine, July/August 2023. [Note: A photograph in the article
incorrectly labels white snakeroot flowering in spring. It flowers in
mid-summer to fall.]</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 09/17/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA.</p></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-55039382616261209062023-08-19T09:42:00.007-05:002023-09-17T14:25:43.036-05:00Once Upon a Milkweed<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOEnLans4Dkm0eb-Chfk-vJLro_XUGTzd0-j2c3qpLVBdDG8DBo94YV7ZRIlK9ii239ZOdzDrORb560pXU0W1LQJVroqRr9n3LjVZq6G7XcVIylH1e9itO5L3OmiA9A_9SkycTzk_5fNHOy2mxKAQBHJh2bbAkp11AaXMQRPOwlv9WjRldPzZhP_B_qw/s1049/Sweat%20bee%20on%20milkweed.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A black and gray sweat bee walking on top of a group of pink swamp milkweed flowers." border="0" data-original-height="576" data-original-width="1049" height="352" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOEnLans4Dkm0eb-Chfk-vJLro_XUGTzd0-j2c3qpLVBdDG8DBo94YV7ZRIlK9ii239ZOdzDrORb560pXU0W1LQJVroqRr9n3LjVZq6G7XcVIylH1e9itO5L3OmiA9A_9SkycTzk_5fNHOy2mxKAQBHJh2bbAkp11AaXMQRPOwlv9WjRldPzZhP_B_qw/w640-h352/Sweat%20bee%20on%20milkweed.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">A sweat bee (genus <i>Lassioglossum</i>) on swamp milkweed (<i>Asclepias incarnata</i>) is in a precarious position. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p>Milkweeds are familiar to many as essential for Monarch
butterflies, but there’s much more to their story. A close look at their
flowers shows an intricate structure with a tricky way to snag insects –
literally.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The flowers of swamp milkweed (<i>Asclepias incarnata</i>),
like many other milkweeds, are composed of five reflexed petals, five upright
hoods, and five narrow horns around a gynostegium, a central column of fused
stamens and pistils. The bases of the hoods hold nectar, and between them are narrow
slits bordered by two “guide rails.” Each slit leads to a chamber that contains
the reproductive parts of the flower, including the stigma, the part that
receives pollen. For that reason, it’s called the stigmatic chamber. <o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixqwGWg7kbhydD1JxcEjVm_Ic-d6xruWHrTim4MonxHZOmcw22nBbOrG8nlJoxl9lcqswkeNqlAluXgioxvZjgkK96avoVeKvzqitYVmc8xzeeKY15kl6lYLpi_S0F4rloV1FR0jL2i4J7Wart-6WQiEZbKecbGnbnLJpKB1hd1LKJmUEFWGONmWtT3Q/s4214/Swamp%20milkweed%20flower%20parts.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A group of swamp milkweed flowers with the petals, horns, hoods, gynostegium and stigmatic slits labeled." border="0" data-original-height="2063" data-original-width="4214" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixqwGWg7kbhydD1JxcEjVm_Ic-d6xruWHrTim4MonxHZOmcw22nBbOrG8nlJoxl9lcqswkeNqlAluXgioxvZjgkK96avoVeKvzqitYVmc8xzeeKY15kl6lYLpi_S0F4rloV1FR0jL2i4J7Wart-6WQiEZbKecbGnbnLJpKB1hd1LKJmUEFWGONmWtT3Q/w541-h265/Swamp%20milkweed%20flower%20parts.jpg" width="541" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal">What’s missing from the flowers are anthers shedding dust-like
pollen grains. Unlike typical flowers, milkweeds don’t offer individual grains for
insects to carry away. Instead, their pollen is packed into waxy sacs called
pollinia. Each chamber holds two pollinia connected by a pair of arms and a
central gland or corpusculum, Latin for “little body.” The whole structure,
called a pollinarium, looks like a small pair of winged maple seeds.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Pollinia are rare. Only orchids also make them. The
advantage of packing pollen grains together is that they can be carried as one
unit to deliver hundreds of grains to the stigma of another flower. That
improves the odds that every ovule in an ovary will be fertilized and develop
into a seed. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">[<i>Sidebar: In seed plants, ovules contain egg nuclei and develop into seeds. One or more ovules reside in an ovary, which sits at the base of a pistil, the “female” reproductive part. Above the ovary is a neck-like style and the stigma, the surface that receives pollen. Ovary walls develop into fruits.</i>]</p><p class="MsoNormal">The challenge for milkweeds is to somehow get the pollinia
out of the chamber and onto another flower. To accomplish this, milkweeds rely
on bees, wasps, flies and butterflies as carriers. The insects visit the flowers
to get nectar, and in the process, take the pollinia. And that’s where it gets
tricky.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">As an insect walks across the waxy surface of a milkweed flower,
a leg or other body part can accidentally slip into one of the slits between
the hoods. The corpusculum then catches its leg, forcing the insect to pull
hard to get it out. Sometimes the insect doesn’t succeed, and it either leaves behind
a leg or dies trying to get it loose. But if the insect can manage, it extracts
its leg with the pollinarium attached. Then it’s off to another flower and
perhaps another slip into a chamber, where the pollinia are deposited and the
pollen can reach the stigma.<o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqZhB8oN4013ydPZtYKmP7m3qDXnBLaqlvl_kY3fYT9_GzAZSkbtTJ9-84tX1USU7_PUkef5NdmRT22hhmUqcmfXBad9aXoC1zAsWmvHBtTXgCKDMM6EqyJSl97QZmcWwvBFErLUqNH5BwGfSZZtZycIG0x1pjVvvCoNuG10nniHX93-hP4r5b52q2vQ/s768/Pollinium%20on%20digger%20bee%20tarsus%20Allan%20Smith-Pardo.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A bristly tarsus of a digger bee to which a dangling yellow pollinium is attached." border="0" data-original-height="718" data-original-width="768" height="374" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqZhB8oN4013ydPZtYKmP7m3qDXnBLaqlvl_kY3fYT9_GzAZSkbtTJ9-84tX1USU7_PUkef5NdmRT22hhmUqcmfXBad9aXoC1zAsWmvHBtTXgCKDMM6EqyJSl97QZmcWwvBFErLUqNH5BwGfSZZtZycIG0x1pjVvvCoNuG10nniHX93-hP4r5b52q2vQ/w400-h374/Pollinium%20on%20digger%20bee%20tarsus%20Allan%20Smith-Pardo.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pollinarium with dangling yellow pollinia on the tarsus (lowest leg segment) of a digger bee. <br />Photo by Allan Smith-Pardo, Bees of the United States, USDA APHIS PPQ, Bugwood.org.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal">That’s a lot of effort, for both the insect and the plant.
The reward for the insect, if it isn’t snagged forever in a milkweed flower, is
a source of nectar that is almost pure sucrose, the same as in your sugar bowl.
The reward for the plant, as mentioned above, is an abundant and directed
source of pollen. No other plants but milkweeds can receive pollinia, so little
pollen is lost on plants that can’t use it. Even a different milkweed species
is unlikely to accept pollinia from, say, a swamp milkweed, because the size
and shape of the receiving chamber may not fit the arriving pollinia. Hybrids
are therefore uncommon.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">To listen to an ecologist talk about milkweed pollination
and why it’s so unusual (and cool!), see this <a href="https://tpt.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/landandsky_uniquepollinationdisperalmethods-milkwe/unique-pollination-system-swamp-milkweed/"><b>video</b></a> by Dr. Thomas Rosburg of Drake University for Iowa PBS.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">To see milkweed pollination in action, see this <a href="https://mgnv.org/beneficial-insects/the-perils-of-pollinia-and-more-about-milkweed/"><b>video</b></a>
from the Master Gardeners of Northern Virginia (scroll down at the site) or
another <a href="https://monarchbutterflyusa.com/story-behind-milkweed-pollination/"><b>video</b></a>
from Monarch Butterfly USA. Some of the terms differ, but the process – and the
pitfalls – are the same. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">To learn more about swamp milkweed in particular, see this <a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/swamp-milkweed"><b>page</b></a>
from Minnesota Wildflowers. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>References</b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/swamp-milkweed">Minnesota
Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/sw_milkweed.htm">Illinois
Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/nvpmctn12764.pdf">Milkweed pollination biology</a>. By Eric P. Eldredge, USDA NRCS. November 2015. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://prairieecologist.com/2021/01/26/milkweed-pollination-a-series-of-fortunate-events/">Milkweed pollination: A series of fortunate events.</a> By Chris
Helzer in <i>The Prairie Ecologist</i>, January 2021. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Wyatt, R. and Broyles, S. B. 1994. Ecology and evolution of
reproduction in milkweeds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25:
423-441. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2097319">https://www.jstor.org/stable/2097319</a><o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-11703014711763216132023-07-27T10:48:00.008-05:002023-08-02T11:52:18.543-05:00Plant profile: Jumpseed<p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i>Persicaria virginiana, </i>formerly <i>Polygonum
virginianum</i>, <i>Antenoron virginianum</i>, <i>Tovara virginiana</i><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglBbtfvZfKlZjhgfnEIflRLZjD6jJax6qa5EJVYz9HAEt5I2jRGBT8H02eK-k--ba9q-WuzW5SlzYbbu-lon-FIzzEwiNQp1PYybSIeakdTQTU1V8qqeoMvwGqgUdxKEU46zNh9Qy0eNNr__u84vAC9sQMSa8FtZgZxyc9XHmdeFnKokcEE8DG8O7N1g/s908/Jumpseed%20Persicaria%20virginiana.JPG" style="clear: left; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="603" data-original-width="908" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglBbtfvZfKlZjhgfnEIflRLZjD6jJax6qa5EJVYz9HAEt5I2jRGBT8H02eK-k--ba9q-WuzW5SlzYbbu-lon-FIzzEwiNQp1PYybSIeakdTQTU1V8qqeoMvwGqgUdxKEU46zNh9Qy0eNNr__u84vAC9sQMSa8FtZgZxyc9XHmdeFnKokcEE8DG8O7N1g/w640-h426/Jumpseed%20Persicaria%20virginiana.JPG" width="640" /></a><br /><br /></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Jumpseed, also called Virginia knotweed or woodland
knotweed, is a perennial herbaceous
plant native to the eastern U.S., including southeast and east central
Minnesota. It thrives in the damp soils and part shade of deciduous woods and
edges, often where there has been some disturbance. These plants were growing
along a trail through a woodland.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">From July into September, the plants produce long, slender
<a href="http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/plants-gardening/plants/flower/types-inflorescences.php"><b>racemes</b></a> bearing tiny, whitish flowers, each just a few millimeters across when
fully open. After pollination by honeybees, bumble bees, leaf-cutting bees, and
other bees and wasps, the flowers form small fruits that are deflexed – they
angle downward on their short pedicels (flower stalks), a tensioned position that
needs only a slight touch to be released. When it is, the fruits “jump” off the
plant. Their hooked ends, formed by remnants of their styles, can latch on to
fur or clothing and help the seeds travel farther from their parents.<o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgic7gk0JLrkmS1Ag2HPe5iEXnX6lWnWBYIAlvZPGZTvoF3gVD4XGwhVuiA_tnoP3HBHvGvasU956SbiCicqlYQMNfLi0MWquC76a6FC1c_xB_oW4WTMzMZnJ6rXuEx6J99C_qEuo9teiVV4Zmn4iThP4fyu3K4Z5tKRB-3g-sPJ10a4ADxATXiDhS93Q/s3140/Jumpseed%20racemes%20flowers%20and%20fruits.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2090" data-original-width="3140" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgic7gk0JLrkmS1Ag2HPe5iEXnX6lWnWBYIAlvZPGZTvoF3gVD4XGwhVuiA_tnoP3HBHvGvasU956SbiCicqlYQMNfLi0MWquC76a6FC1c_xB_oW4WTMzMZnJ6rXuEx6J99C_qEuo9teiVV4Zmn4iThP4fyu3K4Z5tKRB-3g-sPJ10a4ADxATXiDhS93Q/w496-h330/Jumpseed%20racemes%20flowers%20and%20fruits.jpg" width="496" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jumpseed flowers in mid to late summer, producing slender racemes up to 16 inches (40 cm) long. The small flowers <br />have four sepals, but no petals. Fruits have hooked tips that can latch on to passing animals, including humans. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal">Jumpseed also spreads by rhizomes,
underground stems that form patches of plants. Where the plants aren’t desired,
this can be a problem, because they tend to persist even after pulling. The same is true for eastern
jumpseed, an introduced plant. Once considered a variety <i>P. virginiana</i> called <i>filiformis</i>
but now recognized as a separate species, <i>Persicaria filiformis</i>, it is
beginning to develop a reputation as invasive because of its rhizomatous habit.
It differs from <i>P. virginiana</i> in having pink to red flowers and often
variegated leaves, characteristics that make it popular in the horticultural
trade. Several cultivars of eastern jumpseed, such as ‘Painter’s Palette,’
‘Lance Corporal,' and ‘Batwings,’ are offered for sale from some nurseries.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">The last two cultivar names come
from colorations on jumpseed’s leaves. In spring, the leaves are marked with
maroon or dark green chevrons, upside down V’s that resemble military insignia
or wings. The chevrons on Virginia jumpseed disappear by the time the plants flower, but those on eastern jumpseed leaves may persist.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZ1poSSUP2pjM5rz679Tn9WD0MWK3_ZL23N3N1eh3VKAs2qnOXAMnMyzhKdPYcQGfR4SMMYK2MZFkcEOB4BRw26QfnTkk5AJnE04PQGDZZdGdo5gFxV8T9gkTIB_YxY2T691KEAahllUX6zSuyn1fWKTUeBWKrNu-o2gNOtvWyUD2sXB16JSz404d0PQ/s2069/Jumpseed%20stem%20with%20alternate%20leaves%20and%20ocrea.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2069" data-original-width="1386" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZ1poSSUP2pjM5rz679Tn9WD0MWK3_ZL23N3N1eh3VKAs2qnOXAMnMyzhKdPYcQGfR4SMMYK2MZFkcEOB4BRw26QfnTkk5AJnE04PQGDZZdGdo5gFxV8T9gkTIB_YxY2T691KEAahllUX6zSuyn1fWKTUeBWKrNu-o2gNOtvWyUD2sXB16JSz404d0PQ/s320/Jumpseed%20stem%20with%20alternate%20leaves%20and%20ocrea.jpg" width="214" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jumpseed has alternate leaves and hairy ocreas. <br />Notice the swollen nodes. </td></tr></tbody></table>Jumpseeds belong to the buckwheat
or knotweed family, Polygonaceae (poly-gon-AY-see-ee). A typical trait of the
family is a thin sheath called an ocrea (or ochrea) above each node. In formal
terms, the sheath is described as scarious, meaning it is dry and membranous.
The ocrea is formed from <a href="https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/botany_130/plant_morphology/stipules.html"><b>stipules</b></a> that, sometime in the long history of
knotweeds, fused to form a tube around the stem. <p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">Another trait that identifies
this family is its knobby or swollen nodes. They resemble knees, if you use
your imagination. Polygonaceae means “many knees.”</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b>References</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/jumpseed">Minnesota Wildflowers</a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/jumpseed.html">Illinois Wildflowers</a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://mdinvasives.org/iotm/may-2022/">Maryland Invasive Species Council</a> (<i>Persicaria filiformis</i>)</div><div><br /></div><div>John Philip Baumgardt. How to Identify Flowering Plant Families: A Practical Guide for Horticulturists and Plant Lovers. Timber Press, 1982. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-49724436494540548802023-07-18T11:19:00.005-05:002023-07-19T10:34:45.486-05:00Plant Profile: Michigan Lily<p> </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhCvCuY-GXwZJPGAEJfF2qxM861ZuioOV64yHL7OcWFTebfE24LBTz0dfFO3WP-zwyvX_zBROcPe4Y9KDzTpdZ1YAL7n76xxqEvzivbyyJyiLjFXay0ksyVF4-O9ObQRkY6eKDQmjRBoAkzTUzUYDPe8wLvDjIgJY082RN0OkTaTdRZ_EbSqY_j7QhBw/s831/Michigan%20lily%20Lilium%20michiganense.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="831" height="446" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhCvCuY-GXwZJPGAEJfF2qxM861ZuioOV64yHL7OcWFTebfE24LBTz0dfFO3WP-zwyvX_zBROcPe4Y9KDzTpdZ1YAL7n76xxqEvzivbyyJyiLjFXay0ksyVF4-O9ObQRkY6eKDQmjRBoAkzTUzUYDPe8wLvDjIgJY082RN0OkTaTdRZ_EbSqY_j7QhBw/w640-h446/Michigan%20lily%20Lilium%20michiganense.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Michigan lily flowering in mid-July in Hennepin County, Minnesota.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">This lone Michigan lily (<i>Lilium michiganense</i>), barely
out of reach of the ditch mower and surrounded by invasive reed canary grass (<i>Phalaris
arundinacea</i>), grows at the edge of a wetland. That’s typical for this
native perennial, which is also found along streambanks and shores and in wet
meadows, prairies, bogs and woodland edges and openings.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Michigan lily looks much like Turk’s cap lily (<i>Lilium superbum</i>),
another native that grows in the same habitats farther south. In fact, some references call <i>Lilium
michiganense</i> Turk’s cap lily, a mix-up that shows why scientific names are
helpful. They may be tongue-twisters, but unlike common names, scientific names
are usually the same no matter where you are (or what you’re reading), so there’s
less confusion. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">According to most references, this one is almost certainly
Michigan lily. It’s 3<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">–</span>4 feet tall, well within the 3<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">–</span> to 6<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">–</span>foot height typical of this
species. Turk’s cap lily tends to grow taller, usually 5<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">–</span>7 feet. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Their flowers also differ, but the differences are subtle. Both
species have umbels of nodding flowers with orange-red, dark-spotted<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>tepals (similar petals and sepals) that are
reflexed, bending back toward the base of the flower. Large stamens and a long
pistil emerge from the center of the flowers and hang downward. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixSu3u5r1uRjSFwuMhv0PNKoA5praQX1ik2OFnxsgIR-5VWnWzf31thVNZ7H3vvaNMeQvpTtyUI1jWmaGxxuUWbj9ahEoeD-i5PW9gC--FEfIzXmpY6fICeJI6Fv6uu_g6Adrz3BPQHL00GctOBdTqsAZmKdIZ4VUsXYTnLfpbpidKkqaztObmozVNNA/s3933/Michigan%20lily%20flowers%20stem%20leaves.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2069" data-original-width="3933" height="336" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixSu3u5r1uRjSFwuMhv0PNKoA5praQX1ik2OFnxsgIR-5VWnWzf31thVNZ7H3vvaNMeQvpTtyUI1jWmaGxxuUWbj9ahEoeD-i5PW9gC--FEfIzXmpY6fICeJI6Fv6uu_g6Adrz3BPQHL00GctOBdTqsAZmKdIZ4VUsXYTnLfpbpidKkqaztObmozVNNA/w640-h336/Michigan%20lily%20flowers%20stem%20leaves.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Umbels of Michigan lily flowers (left) and sets of whorled leaves on the stem (right).</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">In Michigan lilies the tips of the tepals are said to reach
the base of the flower, but not much farther. In contrast, the tepals of Turk’s
cap lily reach so far back they go beyond the base of the flower and may touch
each other. In addition, their anthers, the pollen-bearing tips of the stamens,
differ in length. According to several references, those of Michigan lily are
never more than ½ inch long, whereas those of Turk’s cap lily are at least ½ inch
long or longer. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If you don’t have a ruler handy, there are other differences
to look for. If flower buds are present, look at their shapes. Michigan lily buds are more or less round in cross section, whereas Turk's cap lily buds are triangular. Open flowers also display differences. The pistil of Michigan lily is orange-red, whereas the pistil of
Turk’s cap lily is greenish white to whitish orange. Looking deep into the
flower, you’ll sometimes see a green, star-shaped center in Turk’s cap lily,
but not in Michigan lily. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Another look-alike is the
introduced tiger lily, <i>Lilium lancifolium</i>, a garden favorite. It differs
from both Michigan and Turk’s cap lilies in that it has alternate, not whorled,
leaves, and small bulbs in the leaf axils. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Growing near this Michigan lily was yet another look-alike, Tawny
day lily, <i>Hemerocallis fulva. </i>Also called ditch lily for its common
habitat, it has orange-red flowers that open upward and have streaked but not
spotted tepals. Day lilies have strap-shaped basal leaves but no leafy stems.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeX2_pI2nRXGAQKwUBtDdpvHVhmqaNWwC9trKIPGagqRKJxL9u5t1nNaKwTAGsPK20v7EzUXXDm8Bm_3catGbNN7AUqXv4TbIecgGxcDnoxfUfWfDm3hGhGsDLxxTjsvzrUNT1nOgtsC7AuhUI7vqCMdNyfffuFXX431yTFE4uqu8mCX7T2LFBwj3pqg/s4445/Tawny%20day%20lily%20plants%20and%20flower.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="4445" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeX2_pI2nRXGAQKwUBtDdpvHVhmqaNWwC9trKIPGagqRKJxL9u5t1nNaKwTAGsPK20v7EzUXXDm8Bm_3catGbNN7AUqXv4TbIecgGxcDnoxfUfWfDm3hGhGsDLxxTjsvzrUNT1nOgtsC7AuhUI7vqCMdNyfffuFXX431yTFE4uqu8mCX7T2LFBwj3pqg/w640-h230/Tawny%20day%20lily%20plants%20and%20flower.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Tawny day lily flowers on leafless stems amid strap-shaped basal leaves. The flowers open upward, their red-orange tepals streaked but not spotted.</div><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Michigan lily ranges throughout the upper Midwest and the
Great Lakes region and less commonly farther east and south. In this region, it
flowers in July. Pollinators are thought to be hummingbirds, butterflies and
moths.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtaqRYXkKxuX4vsH1ThnNK9SarSO6b_9SghRHk2mnm3NppZGILNZa8UUalAAaoICJtFt0oYQRgSKQyP9demX3s52fAq3Jf3n_2kndj21hmergB5RdMKzEbqRufWhRcO2bhSWxWvyAHrDUO0FLYatV-jHWJFJrZZkKDmVkD87cOtn70QSoE2DmAnH3zig/s3462/Michigan%20lily%20range%20maps%20USDA.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1382" data-original-width="3462" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtaqRYXkKxuX4vsH1ThnNK9SarSO6b_9SghRHk2mnm3NppZGILNZa8UUalAAaoICJtFt0oYQRgSKQyP9demX3s52fAq3Jf3n_2kndj21hmergB5RdMKzEbqRufWhRcO2bhSWxWvyAHrDUO0FLYatV-jHWJFJrZZkKDmVkD87cOtn70QSoE2DmAnH3zig/w640-h256/Michigan%20lily%20range%20maps%20USDA.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Michigan lily's range in North America (left) and the Upper Midwest (right). Maps from USDA Plants Database.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br /><b>References</b><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/michigan-lily ">Minnesota Wildflowers - Michigan Lily</a></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/turkscaplily.html ">Friends of Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden - Turk's Cap Lily</a><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/prairie/plantx/mich_lilyx.htm ">Illinois Wildflowers - Michigan Lily</a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/savanna/plants/turkcap_lily.htm">Illinois Wildflowers - Turk's Cap Lily</a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242101738">Flora
of North America – Michigan Lily</a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242101746">Flora
of North America – Turk’s Cap Lily</a><o:p></o:p></p></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database
(http://plants.usda.gov, 07/18/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
USA.</span><o:p></o:p></p></div><br /></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-84944016793729071192023-06-25T17:02:00.005-05:002023-06-29T08:35:26.449-05:00Plant profile: Cow parsnip<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAqZXAPrgXkxYte-a7kHo6VeT2Io86JO7hYd1hd7Ipm5IKhlxXG1bUSm0BD_0WSBiHYwyxhAMn3-_vJQ2bTWcj-V5htVyCI8tZSlhc-d-NmJVnzno1TatFwzscnkcil_uYbFnwQhT_wXeuIccpcVcjkVyocJ9IkYpVojSOENcukF2IDMLtxUIexofgbw/s669/Cow%20parsnip%20Heracleum%20maximum%20plant.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="669" data-original-width="448" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAqZXAPrgXkxYte-a7kHo6VeT2Io86JO7hYd1hd7Ipm5IKhlxXG1bUSm0BD_0WSBiHYwyxhAMn3-_vJQ2bTWcj-V5htVyCI8tZSlhc-d-NmJVnzno1TatFwzscnkcil_uYbFnwQhT_wXeuIccpcVcjkVyocJ9IkYpVojSOENcukF2IDMLtxUIexofgbw/w268-h400/Cow%20parsnip%20Heracleum%20maximum%20plant.JPG" width="268" /></a></div><b>Caution: </b>The sap of cow parsnip and other members of
the carrot family can cause skin rashes and blisters. See below for more
information.<p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Cow parsnip, <i>Heracleum maximum</i>, is a big plant with a
big name. This 4- to 8-foot-tall native plant of damp meadows and fields,
streamsides, ditches, and low, open woods is named for Heracles or Hercules, the
mythic Greek hero of superhuman strength. Even the species name, <i>maximum</i>,
hints at its size. Few herbaceous plants are as robust. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A biennial or short-lived perennial in the carrot family,
cow parsnip has alternate, divided leaves up to 2 feet across, with smaller,
undivided leaves higher on the stem. The leaflets are irregularly lobed,
coarsely toothed, and hairy. The petioles of lower and middle leaves are 3 to 10 inches long with sheaths where they meet the stem. Stems are stout, hollow,
ridged, and hairy. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQxtq1tp9gLcPB6FpVSSeBQstpiPwSGfhZGv5JboLN4TrT9jGAiSZsNNrJBL5hdug_3mI6PX8qSM5DZgk_lYZ29ucRJxFuxDEetp7qG0LC2jdcZW6i137VrEPzMiqOPDcCafZS05caIrN9lHQEh2DkkawKMsnAChP6u5CnM8PeTF6kERildqpF-X-MAw/s4048/Cow%20parsnip%20leaf%20and%20sheath.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1867" data-original-width="4048" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQxtq1tp9gLcPB6FpVSSeBQstpiPwSGfhZGv5JboLN4TrT9jGAiSZsNNrJBL5hdug_3mI6PX8qSM5DZgk_lYZ29ucRJxFuxDEetp7qG0LC2jdcZW6i137VrEPzMiqOPDcCafZS05caIrN9lHQEh2DkkawKMsnAChP6u5CnM8PeTF6kERildqpF-X-MAw/w640-h296/Cow%20parsnip%20leaf%20and%20sheath.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lower leaves of cow parsnip are divided into three lobed, toothed leaflets. This leaf blade (left) is about 18 inches long. Petioles are long with sheaths where they meet the stem (right).</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Cow parsnip flowers from late May into early July. Small,
white, 5-petaled flowers are in flat-topped, compound umbels, clusters that
resemble a collection of little umbrellas. (See <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/2022/03/flower-parts-for-plant-id.html">Flower Parts for Plant ID</a> to learn more about types
of flowers and flower clusters, called inflorescences.) The flowers are
pollinated by honeybees and many kinds of native bees and flies, the variety so
great that some consider cow parsnip a pollinator magnet.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdLvpZS0Ym3m-lBYcpc2cMM8OaF_T75Kj3i4R8ERg6yHChdkATs6mXgp9_TxtL54K49WlKJW7AZFcaqwoK3F_VHEplvuAwtYktmL4h_oo4ORhFsYtia20tXXNG3h9HJpoeo11hJSuiNpCwFw6bgmSvrEGGwa95WXD_WXSoZB35S4rS8bmCFMH6Y22sVQ/s4207/Cow%20parsnip%20inflorescence.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1467" data-original-width="4207" height="224" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdLvpZS0Ym3m-lBYcpc2cMM8OaF_T75Kj3i4R8ERg6yHChdkATs6mXgp9_TxtL54K49WlKJW7AZFcaqwoK3F_VHEplvuAwtYktmL4h_oo4ORhFsYtia20tXXNG3h9HJpoeo11hJSuiNpCwFw6bgmSvrEGGwa95WXD_WXSoZB35S4rS8bmCFMH6Y22sVQ/w640-h224/Cow%20parsnip%20inflorescence.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cow parsnip flowers are arranged in compound umbels. Each spoke of the umbel extends to another, smaller umbel, called an umbellet. The tiny, white flowers have five petals. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Fruits are flattened, up to 1/3 inch long and 1/4 inch wide,
and brown with dark, vertical lines when they mature in late summer or early
fall. They are winged on their edges and so can be dispersed a limited distance
by wind. Eventually the fruits split apart and release two seeds. Cow parsnip
reproduces only by seed.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpOQHAYX30fmSmpPeYqJPHfhimxTCd1NbiDW3mLfMnaQZu1R1KtKg9j7GtLMjqEXdjSsvUK11CfsKNeY6Z5bveXGIJnefLBfYjVMLkXgiYB5uNZTXDDzJroa6M5wNpxL5wgwYwvPNZlVxFPhFC3byMc3k_3GE2SD_7HQDDspYJ6YkXeQU8Dw9tDPj5wQ/s1010/Cow%20parsnip%20fruits.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="619" data-original-width="1010" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpOQHAYX30fmSmpPeYqJPHfhimxTCd1NbiDW3mLfMnaQZu1R1KtKg9j7GtLMjqEXdjSsvUK11CfsKNeY6Z5bveXGIJnefLBfYjVMLkXgiYB5uNZTXDDzJroa6M5wNpxL5wgwYwvPNZlVxFPhFC3byMc3k_3GE2SD_7HQDDspYJ6YkXeQU8Dw9tDPj5wQ/w400-h245/Cow%20parsnip%20fruits.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">These immature fruits of cow parsnip will turn brown when they mature in late summer.</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal">Although the plant is native here and in much of North
America, in some states it’s introduced and invasive. In North Carolina, for
example, cow parsnip is described as aggressive and insidious and is classified
as a noxious weed.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Be Careful<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Cow parsnip is rarely considered an ecological
problem here, but it should be handled with care. The leaves and stems contain
furanocoumarins, compounds that sensitize skin to ultraviolet light. If skin is
exposed to plant sap and then sunlight, blistering rashes may result. The
condition, called phytophotodermatitis, can take weeks to heal. Always wear
gloves, long sleeves and pants when handling this plant, and wash off and cover
skin if exposed to the sap. The sap can also damage the eyes, so it’s best to
wear eye protection if the plant will be disturbed. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Watch Out for a Look-alike<i><o:p></o:p></i></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Giant hogweed (<i>Heracleum mantegazzianum</i>), a similar but much larger plant, is introduced and invasive. So
far, this 10- to 15-foot-tall plant hasn’t been found in Minnesota, but it is
present in Wisconsin, and it’s known to be especially hazardous. The Minnesota Department
of Agriculture includes giant hogweed on its list of noxious weeds that should
be eradicated if found. Report the plant’s location using <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/reportapest">Report a Pest</a> or <a href="https://www.eddmaps.org/">EDDMapS</a> and handle it using extreme caution.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Invasive Plants in the Carrot Family<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Cow parsnip isn’t one of Minnesota’s “bad carrots,” but
several other species are, including not only giant hogweed but also wild parsnip, burnet
saxifrage, Queen Anne’s lace, and several others. A guide to identifying these
plants is available in the Downloads tab.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>References<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/cowparsnip.html">Friends
of Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/common-cow-parsnip">Minnesota
Wildflowers</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://bwsr.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/2019-02/August%202014%20Featured%20Plant%20Cow%20Parsnip.pdf">BWSR
Featured Plant: Cow Parsnip</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a name="_Hlk138413693"></a><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/cow_parsnip.html">Illinois Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white;">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database
(http://plants.usda.gov, 06/21/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
USA.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/hogweed">Giant
hogweed – Minnesota Department of Agriculture</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/gianthogweed.html">Giant
hogweed (<i>Heracleum mantegazzianum</i>) – Minnesota Department of Natural
Resources</a><o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-57742575513864974282023-06-09T07:32:00.000-05:002023-06-09T07:32:51.990-05:00Plant Profile: Starflower<p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir2kNbb9d0gw31CdaeLwZWkoSxDfs1LFehJYCYaWSs9SfFWZt-gH2xZO7pxs71ew6YPYXO87QwvANHgWj5nnvWqKY8b5-AVMUot2LDCCj6FPmLbEpQt-MZd31aSznuNl6pj_FLZKxG--nYJmdatGO4l18J_1uad0a9RPdQ3akM-zATioJ_PS15WIE/s969/Starflower%20Trientalis%20borealis.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="554" data-original-width="969" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir2kNbb9d0gw31CdaeLwZWkoSxDfs1LFehJYCYaWSs9SfFWZt-gH2xZO7pxs71ew6YPYXO87QwvANHgWj5nnvWqKY8b5-AVMUot2LDCCj6FPmLbEpQt-MZd31aSznuNl6pj_FLZKxG--nYJmdatGO4l18J_1uad0a9RPdQ3akM-zATioJ_PS15WIE/w640-h366/Starflower%20Trientalis%20borealis.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Starflower blooming in late May in a mixed coniferous-deciduous forest in north-central Minnesota.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Starflower (<i>Trientalis borealis</i>, aka <i>Lysimachia
borealis</i>) is a spring-blooming, perennial wildflower of coniferous and
deciduous forests. In early spring, stems emerge from overwintering tubers and
grow 4–8
inches tall, their slender stems bearing six to eight lance-shaped leaves of
unequal size. In May and June, one, two, or rarely three flowers grow from the
leaf axils. Each flower is about ½ inch wide and typically has seven white,
pointed petals and orange anthers that later turn brown.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The flowers are self-incompatible, so they can’t pollinate
themselves. To form seeds, they must receive pollen from another patch of
starflowers, delivered primarily by native mining bees (andrenid bees), sweat
bees (halictid bees) and hover flies (syrphid flies). If the bees are present, if
the patches are close enough for the bees to transit, and if pollination is
successful, small seed capsules eventually form at the tips of the stems. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">That’s a lot of <i>ifs</i> and little assurance of a next
generation. Starflower doesn’t depend only on seeds for reproduction, however. In
fact, very little of its energy is dedicated to flowering and seed set. Most of
its reproductive effort is spent on rhizomes, underground stems that extend the
plant’s reach and give rise to new plants. It’s a faster way of reproducing, and
in a stable environment, it’s more reliable. The downside is that the parent plant
and its vegetative offspring are genetically identical, so if the environment
changes, the plants may not have what it takes for a population to survive.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If conditions remain favorable, though, the rhizomes grow and
form patches of new plants. By midsummer, tubers begin forming at their tips.
Aided by the cool nights of late summer and fall, they fill with starch to fuel
next year’s growth. Rhizome connections then wither and the leaves yellow and
fall. Bare stems topped with capsules are all that remain above ground, while
tubers below ground carry their incipient roots and shoots through winter,
ready to resume growth in spring. Starflower seeds also overwinter, but they
don’t germinate until fall of the second year.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtJBxd0dddXSYLtcPWQpKFd_FReC-ciJntLLdNq9Fdt9eM0I0JjJiJQe4n0h1qeyMhiDjEhUURmstBhq__eT-xuXmeg7tiUw8uG-1JsUqXvyT3z9X81eNmLTAKpFi_xu5DRpe1Q86sgP3hpFzjeby0X2_tcUsO0RklvOtmQ24x9uz2jpUP6y9UOHc/s4028/Starflower%20range%20maps.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1371" data-original-width="4028" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtJBxd0dddXSYLtcPWQpKFd_FReC-ciJntLLdNq9Fdt9eM0I0JjJiJQe4n0h1qeyMhiDjEhUURmstBhq__eT-xuXmeg7tiUw8uG-1JsUqXvyT3z9X81eNmLTAKpFi_xu5DRpe1Q86sgP3hpFzjeby0X2_tcUsO0RklvOtmQ24x9uz2jpUP6y9UOHc/w640-h218/Starflower%20range%20maps.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Starflower range in North America (left ) and the Upper Midwest (right). Maps from USDA Plants Database.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">As with many plants, Starflower is facing challenges brought
by climate change. The cool nights needed for maximum tuber development are warmer
now, and researchers have found that flowering and seed set lessen toward the
southern edge of the plant’s range. These changes raise questions and concerns
about whether the species can adapt, because in some places, it isn't.
Starflower is state-listed as endangered in Georgia and state-listed as threatened
in Illinois.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Populations in Minnesota and other northern locations are
responding to warmer May temperatures by flowering earlier. That may or may not
be beneficial, but so far, starflower seems to be holding its own here. The
species name <i>borealis</i>, meaning “of the north,” may be truer than ever. <o:p></o:p></p><b>References</b><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/starflower">Minnesota
Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/starflower.html">Illinois
Wildflowers</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database (<a href="http://plants.usda.gov/">http://plants.usda.gov</a>, 06/03/2023). National
Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Roger C. Anderson. June 1970. <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/336522">The role of
daylength and temperature in tuber formation and rhizome growth of <i>Trientalis
borealis</i> Raf.</a> Botanical Gazette, Volume 131, Number 2, pp. 122-128. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Roger C. Anderson and Orie L.
Loucks. July 1973. <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2307/1935674">Aspects
of the biology of <i>Trientalis borealis</i> Raf.</a> Ecology, Volume 54, Issue
4, pp. 798-808.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Roger C. Anderson and Michael H.
Beare. March 1983. <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1983.tb06408.x">Breeding
system and pollination ecology of <i>Trientalis borealis</i> (Primulaceae).</a>
American Journal of Botany, Volume 70, Issue 3, pp. 408-415.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Emily Dangremond. No date. <a href="https://illinoisplants.org/climate-change-and-starflower-in-the-midwest/">Climate
change and starflower in the Midwest.</a> Illinois Native Plant Society.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Emily Dangremond, Christopher H. Hill, Shahd Louaibi, and
Ivette Muñoz.
2021. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11258-021-01190-w">Phenological
responsiveness and fecundity decline near the southern range limit of <i>Trientalis
borealis</i> (Primulaceae).</a> Plant Ecology, Volume 223, pp. 41-51. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Linda G. Chafin. 2020. <i><a href="https://georgiabiodiversity.org/profile/profile?group=None&es_id=16242">Trientalis
borealis<span style="font-style: normal;"> Raf</span></a></i>. Georgia
Biodiversity Portal, Georgia Department of Natural Resources/Wildlife Resources
Division. <o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-48977019999423141822023-04-12T11:32:00.002-05:002023-04-12T16:04:17.689-05:00What Are Catkins -- and Why Does "Gesundheit" Come to Mind?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi0Fgph2Iuq14xe4YpS_L0lh-SugEa4S3vmjXdbRxPPxbYo185kWYaakPlboW-GaNpOilumN2GemvbHJdrraPPHf7RDoj1h6jhhe-WEen8UHfbPkFObaWM-2umJSucmpf9m8aihqTTagyuayprGdRs3IGL0FHxcN1oa_mmz5gEmDxv04lEW7hLI58/s811/Quaking%20aspen%20catkins.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A branch of quaking aspen with several clusters of hanging, cylindrical, fuzzy catkins." border="0" data-original-height="461" data-original-width="811" height="364" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgi0Fgph2Iuq14xe4YpS_L0lh-SugEa4S3vmjXdbRxPPxbYo185kWYaakPlboW-GaNpOilumN2GemvbHJdrraPPHf7RDoj1h6jhhe-WEen8UHfbPkFObaWM-2umJSucmpf9m8aihqTTagyuayprGdRs3IGL0FHxcN1oa_mmz5gEmDxv04lEW7hLI58/w640-h364/Quaking%20aspen%20catkins.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Catkins of quaking aspen, <i>Populus tremuloides</i>, began emerging in March in southern Minnesota. This photo was taken in mid-April.<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Catkins, also called aments, are cylindrical, sometimes pendant clusters of inconspicuous flowers. They are typical of willows, aspens, poplars,
birches, alders, hazelnuts and ironwood trees and shrubs. All these plants
bloom in spring, often before leaves emerge, and most are wind pollinated. Willows
are also insect pollinated and can be an important source of pollen and nectar
for early-emerging insects, including those that later pollinate crops (1).</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Catkins contain either male (pollen producing) or female (seed producing)
flowers on the same or different plants. Ironwood (<i>Ostrya virginiana</i>), hazelnuts
(<i>Corylus</i> spp.), birches (<i>Betula</i> spp.) and alders (<i>Alnus</i>
spp.) have male and female catkins on the same plants, so they’re said to be
monoecious (mon-EE-shus), which means “one house.” <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In contrast, aspens and poplars (<i>Populus</i> spp.) have
male and female catkins on different plants, so they’re dioecious (di-EE-shus),
meaning “two houses.” Willows (<i>Salix</i> spp.) are also dioecious. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The emergence of catkins and the release of pollen marks not
only the beginning of spring but also the start of allergy season. Wind-pollinated
plants tend to produce abundant pollen because the grains could land anywhere –
perhaps on a female flower of the same species, but maybe on those of a
different species or even on no plant at all. Such as on you. </p><p class="MsoNormal"></p>Flurries of pollen may add to the
misery for allergy sufferers, but for aspens, willows, and similar plants, they’re
an insurance policy. The possibility of a next generation literally blows
in the wind, so the more pollen, the better. "Gesundheit" for one, then, is good fortune for the other. <p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Reference</b></p><p class="MsoNormal">1) Ostaff, D. P., Mosseler, A., Johns, R. C., Javorek, S.,
Klymko, J. and Ascher, J. S. 2015. Willows (Salix spp.) as pollen and nectar
sources for sustaining fruit and berry pollinating insects. Can. J. Plant Sci.
95: 505<span face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">[1]</span>516.
<span style="background: white; color: #555555; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%;">DOI:</span><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/CJPS-2014-339" style="cursor: pointer; outline: none;" target="_blank"><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">10.4141/CJPS-2014-339</span></a>.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><br /><br /><br />Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-8554999460455195022023-03-23T07:59:00.009-05:002023-03-25T08:02:51.781-05:00New Invasive Plants to Watch For<p class="MsoNormal">The Minnesota Department of Agriculture has added several
new plants to its <b><a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants-insects/minnesota-noxious-weed-list">2023
noxious weed list</a>.</b> This post focuses primarily on additions to the
Prohibited-Eradicate category, but three other categories – Prohibited-Control,
Restricted and Specially Regulated – are covered at the end of the post.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Prohibited-Eradicate: The Early-Detection List</b></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal">The plants in this group either aren’t here yet or are
present in low numbers. They're in the early-detection stage, when ideally, they can be found and removed before they
become widespread. As the name of the group suggests, these plants should be eradicated by destroying
all above- and below-ground parts. Transporting, propagating or selling them is
illegal. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Three plants are new to the list this year: Johnsongrass,
pale swallow-wort and red hailstone.<o:p></o:p></p>
<b>Johnsongrass</b><br /><i>Sorghum halepense</i>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNXfnfm2M8Okee5Ne82EY0QKsXzGLmFZqjIKlE-e3Z4VEgRprRyKIDFrf5Ah84q1KipydcuQqsTanrbiiRxVEen1ke1adnBsmYoeR7BgbCuGKuM-z3UQ4cPqtMahLBD6r-JiceX0u38lMzuvMmAT32G0uVzcpriKBx1Vm9hkYSwOnsQ4hHsZtrhAU/s582/Map%20USDA%20Plants%20Database.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Distribution map of Johnsongrass in the Upper Midwest. So far, no counties in Minnesota are highlighted." border="0" data-original-height="447" data-original-width="582" height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNXfnfm2M8Okee5Ne82EY0QKsXzGLmFZqjIKlE-e3Z4VEgRprRyKIDFrf5Ah84q1KipydcuQqsTanrbiiRxVEen1ke1adnBsmYoeR7BgbCuGKuM-z3UQ4cPqtMahLBD6r-JiceX0u38lMzuvMmAT32G0uVzcpriKBx1Vm9hkYSwOnsQ4hHsZtrhAU/w320-h246/Map%20USDA%20Plants%20Database.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">USDA NRCS Plants Database (see references). Johnsongrass is <br />confirmed in counties shaded blue. Lakes and rivers are also <br />shaded blue.</td></tr></tbody></table>This perennial grass was introduced to the U.S. in the 1800s
as a forage crop. It is now found in many<br /> habitats, including pastures,
roadsides, ditches, old fields and wetlands. It reproduces by seeds and
rhizomes and can spread aggressively to form dense mats that exclude other
plants. It will not tolerate drought or extreme cold, so where winters are
severe, Johnsongrass may be a facultative (optional) annual. Stressed plants
can produce toxic levels of cyanide. <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Johnsongrass grows 8-12 feet tall when flowering. Leaves are
alternate, hairless and up to 2 feet long with white midribs. <a href="https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/WEEDS/ID/ligules.html#:~:text=A%20ligule%20is%20an%20outgrowth,used%20in%20the%20identification%20process." target="_blank"><b>Ligules</b></a> are 3-4
mm long, membranous and sometimes toothed. Johnsongrass flowers from mid-summer to fall
in loose, purplish <b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panicle" target="_blank">panicles</a>.</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Leaves of Amur silvergrass (<i>Miscanthus sacchariflorus</i>),
another introduced plant, also have white midribs, but this plant is shorter at
6-8 feet. Its ligules are a hairy fringe, and its panicles are silvery and
silky in fall. <o:p></o:p></p>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj231KAIDJqeyiKY93Bn1VXPssxcg-5VpttzcATLs7GYE95B4yrZ_LyCGmHMf16uJ61wBHFTcKwwKCLhErlpKfCL4D0jbHPZDIMwnaL6ccuTae0GUtBxQo_qDIASdORf8Na7n9BrLjansqMEqPalN_-Lbkh7673JE5p7bqcDkOIdGIZVJgE3PuWU7w/s4400/Johnsongrass%20Sorghum%20halepense.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Panel of photos showing features of Johnsongrass for identification." border="0" data-original-height="2475" data-original-width="4400" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj231KAIDJqeyiKY93Bn1VXPssxcg-5VpttzcATLs7GYE95B4yrZ_LyCGmHMf16uJ61wBHFTcKwwKCLhErlpKfCL4D0jbHPZDIMwnaL6ccuTae0GUtBxQo_qDIASdORf8Na7n9BrLjansqMEqPalN_-Lbkh7673JE5p7bqcDkOIdGIZVJgE3PuWU7w/w640-h360/Johnsongrass%20Sorghum%20halepense.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Clockwise from left: Johnsongrass stem and dense stand by Chris Evans, University of Illinois, Bugwood.org; Johnsongrass rhizomes and panicle by Steve Dewey, Utah State University, Bugwood,org. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><b>Pale swallow-wort</b><br /><i>Cynanchum rossicum</i> (aka <i>Vincetoxicum rossicum</i>)
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkOImzqCZXh0Yzz52aXTRXYkUWyB7s2jPwv4lXR00tvB-pbWYUPAXy-401YqYVnf0VzwtKy92SNEiSVh4KgtqjAKxVOsaw072jsrUt2qI_22Yf_abLZSMjCITBwPSv6m9h3qPw4e9Ru4jj0zIjLsCQ2mpv-jUDtgyPKKuWFNkApz9KgPSMvzYf6po/s709/EDDMapS%20distribution.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Distribution map of pale swallow wort in the Upper Midwest. So far, only one metropolitan-area county is highlighted." border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="709" height="203" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkOImzqCZXh0Yzz52aXTRXYkUWyB7s2jPwv4lXR00tvB-pbWYUPAXy-401YqYVnf0VzwtKy92SNEiSVh4KgtqjAKxVOsaw072jsrUt2qI_22Yf_abLZSMjCITBwPSv6m9h3qPw4e9Ru4jj0zIjLsCQ2mpv-jUDtgyPKKuWFNkApz9KgPSMvzYf6po/w320-h203/EDDMapS%20distribution.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">EDDMapS (see references). Pale swallow-wort is confirmed in <br />counties shaded green.The plant has also been confirmed in Ontario.</td></tr></tbody></table>Pale swallow-wort, also called European swallow-wort, is a
perennial, twining vine that was imported<br /> to the U.S. in the late 1800s,
probably as an ornamental. It thrives in disturbed sites but can grow in a
variety of habitats, including fields, pastures
and woodland edges and understories. Fast-growing and shade tolerant, it can
quickly overrun and outcompete other plants. Because swallow-wort is in the
milkweed family, female monarchs will sometimes lay their eggs on it if common
milkweed is unavailable. There is concern, however, that swallow-wort is toxic
to monarch larvae.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The vine has opposite, shiny, oval or heart-shaped leaves
with pointed tips. Stems grow to 7 feet long, wrapping around other plants or
structures for support or clambering over the ground. Sap is clear, not white. Clusters
of pink to reddish-brown, star-shaped flowers bloom in June and July. Pods are
slender, smooth and 2-3 inches long. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Black swallow-wort (<i>Cynanchum nigrum</i>) is also on the
Prohibited-Eradicate list. It looks like pale swallow-wort but has dark purple
flowers.<o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj57Io51jkQ5uwywyWhqV76uo5lk6dlrhdU6rN-zQWV1ndMOsdmhteWzHKYphKwgfSEGkBgW6fnEWmVlD990HoVg9MGBJqRK4n8v-l-oO7Slkays6oM3UvpU3fyLhnKpbBSKhwb_QDkgvoWmB4ltziOVF2hsV7Tp5xnjgOr-xGO1Avok0h6eqQiuGU/s4400/Pale%20swallowwort%20Cynanchum%20rossicum.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Panel of photos showing features of pale swallow wort for identification." border="0" data-original-height="2475" data-original-width="4400" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj57Io51jkQ5uwywyWhqV76uo5lk6dlrhdU6rN-zQWV1ndMOsdmhteWzHKYphKwgfSEGkBgW6fnEWmVlD990HoVg9MGBJqRK4n8v-l-oO7Slkays6oM3UvpU3fyLhnKpbBSKhwb_QDkgvoWmB4ltziOVF2hsV7Tp5xnjgOr-xGO1Avok0h6eqQiuGU/w640-h360/Pale%20swallowwort%20Cynanchum%20rossicum.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Clockwise from left: Pale swallow-wort vines by Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org; Pods and seeds by Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org. Leaves and flowers by Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"> </p><b>Red hailstone</b><br /><i>Thladiantha dubia</i>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6S8SxO4ZgGxsxfqWLR9J03VoyBJhdNx-7yyXjNlNggA0TJaocM_kg9z4HpV0gXiQ4Rn3pCt5xkA5BwTT0UtzAPkey1VoMEglkS99eyfN8j3iHtkAkjIQ22HXIvRHYMNBJcMxGilKUrD8DMuqyRj50BB9kOOasCo0vmF-1A2I-DaKIA19_yZdHLw8/s686/EDDMaps%20distribution.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Distribution map of red hailstone in the Upper Midwest. Scattered counties in Minnesota are highlighted." border="0" data-original-height="439" data-original-width="686" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6S8SxO4ZgGxsxfqWLR9J03VoyBJhdNx-7yyXjNlNggA0TJaocM_kg9z4HpV0gXiQ4Rn3pCt5xkA5BwTT0UtzAPkey1VoMEglkS99eyfN8j3iHtkAkjIQ22HXIvRHYMNBJcMxGilKUrD8DMuqyRj50BB9kOOasCo0vmF-1A2I-DaKIA19_yZdHLw8/w320-h205/EDDMaps%20distribution.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">EDDMapS (see references). Red hailstone is confirmed in <br />counties shaded green. </td></tr></tbody></table>Also called golden creeper or tuber gourd, red hailstone is
a perennial vine introduced to North America<br /> in the late 1800s or early 1900s
as an ornamental. This adaptable plant grows in abandoned fields, roadsides,
gardens, crop fields, railroad corridors
and natural areas. Red hailstone can quickly overgrow and smother other plants, including
crops.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Vines grow up to 20 feet long with tendrils that grasp
other plants or structures for support. Leaves are alternate and heart-shaped.
Stems, leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are hairy. Yellow, tubular flowers
bloom from July to September on separate male (pollen-producing) and female
(seed-producing) plants. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">So far, all plants found in Minnesota are male, so the vines
aren’t spreading by seed. Instead, they reproduce vegetatively by small tubers carried
along waterways; many of the mapped infestations are along rivers or streams. Where
both male and female plants grow, 2-inch oblong fruits may form on female
vines. The fruits turn red when mature, thus the name red hailstone. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Before it flowers, red hailstone resembles other
tendril-bearing vines in the same family. Wild cucumber (<i>Echinocystis lobata</i>)
is a hairless vine with five-lobed leaves and white flowers that bloom in late
summer. Bur cucumber (<i>Sicyos angulatus</i>) is hairy but also has five-lobed
leaves. Its flowers are white or greenish-white. Neither cucumber vine has red
fruits. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0CSSGmRKFUdQC6RwhmAxTh5SRcoCN4XNFfQQgPdX529Jbnee-SuuvtXSsGjXfxeuo1mC1zT0t1Go9Rk8Oyl3_MZe26A8v7uqh29XmrWfoaAoM7mAaCtjZsoltuRctNOZRFOyAZ6OcQAVk4ne0PQNfPogN03v97ii_cPDEmJIdanpmyytna7Id8Cs/s4400/Red%20hailstone%20Thladiantha%20dubia%201.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2475" data-original-width="4400" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0CSSGmRKFUdQC6RwhmAxTh5SRcoCN4XNFfQQgPdX529Jbnee-SuuvtXSsGjXfxeuo1mC1zT0t1Go9Rk8Oyl3_MZe26A8v7uqh29XmrWfoaAoM7mAaCtjZsoltuRctNOZRFOyAZ6OcQAVk4ne0PQNfPogN03v97ii_cPDEmJIdanpmyytna7Id8Cs/w640-h360/Red%20hailstone%20Thladiantha%20dubia%201.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Clockwise from left: Red hailstone leaves and infestation by Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers; Red hailstone flowering plants by Peter Dzuik, Minnesota Wildflowers.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSVxPY1hjHoLq2qOHXLT304uKKN9QzI6PRB1fkrT3xp0YNZNKKTlYWnxrI9TpHJua4ucr7_9Ln5BQwK2CaENFEY3jiNxmYm4hNCkRgWIq1biSXs8H5AOD6qfRKHSwtpD2EYDugqa4ls4oK7EFDsVPF6kr_4gohuzUi0b_lAyhKlmZ9pbccNdaI3CI/s3612/Red%20hailstone%20Thladiantha%20dubia%202.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1861" data-original-width="3612" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSVxPY1hjHoLq2qOHXLT304uKKN9QzI6PRB1fkrT3xp0YNZNKKTlYWnxrI9TpHJua4ucr7_9Ln5BQwK2CaENFEY3jiNxmYm4hNCkRgWIq1biSXs8H5AOD6qfRKHSwtpD2EYDugqa4ls4oK7EFDsVPF6kr_4gohuzUi0b_lAyhKlmZ9pbccNdaI3CI/w640-h330/Red%20hailstone%20Thladiantha%20dubia%202.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Clockwise from left: Red hailstone flowers by Peter Dzuik, Minnesota Wildflowers; male flower closeup by Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers; rhizomes and tuber by Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><o:p><br /></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><br /></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><br /></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Other Categories of Noxious Weeds</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The MDA defines three other categories of noxious weeds. Two
were expanded in 2023.<o:p></o:p></p>
<blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Prohibited-Control: Plants in this category are
already established here, so eradication isn’t practical. Management aims at
preventing them from reproducing by seed or vegetative organs, such as
rhizomes, tubers or stem fragments that can take root. Transportation of all
propagating parts is illegal <a href="https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/18.82"><b>except as allowed by
state law</b>,</a> and the plants may not be propagated or sold in the state.
Sixteen species are on the list, including three kinds of knotweed featured in
a previous post, <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/2022/10/are-psyllids-solution-to-invasive.html"><b>Are
Psyllids the Solution to Invasive Knotweeds?</b></a> No new species were added in
2023. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Restricted: These plants are widespread in Minnesota.
The only practical way to manage them is to restrict their importation, sale
and transportation in the state, <a href="https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/18.82"><b>except as allowed by
state law.</b></a> Two plants are new to the list this year: <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/lesser-celandine"><b>lesser celandine</b></a> (<i>Ficaria
verna</i>), an aggressive spring ephemeral and garden escapee, and <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/saltcedar"><b>salt cedar</b></a> (<i>Tamarix
ramosissima</i>), also called tamarisk, a shrub first introduced in the West for
landscape use, windbreaks and erosion control. </p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Specially Regulated: These are native or
nonnative weeds that are economically valuable but potentially harmful if not
controlled. Three plants are new to the list this year.<b> <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/amur-corktree">Amur corktree</a></b> (<i>Phellodendron
amurense</i>) now must be removed wherever females have been planted or
escaped, or their fruits and seeds must be prevented from spreading. Only male
cultivars are legal to sell. Production of <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/callery-pear"><b>Callery pear</b></a> (<i>Pyrus
calleryana</i>) is being phased out over the next three years, after which the
tree will be moved to the Restricted category. <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/tatarian-maple"><b>Tatarian maple</b></a> (<i>Acer tataricum</i>)
and its cultivars can be sold only if a label is attached advising that they
should be planted only where the seedlings can be controlled, and ideally at
least 100 yards away from any natural area.</p></blockquote><p> </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>References<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">EDDMapS. 2023. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping
System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem
Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed March 20,
2023.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database
(http://plants.usda.gov, 03/23/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
USA.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Johnsongrass<u><o:p></o:p></u></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/Johnsongrass.html">Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources<o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/johnsongrass">Minnesota
Department of Agriculture<o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/graminoid/sorhal/all.html">USDA
Fire Effects Information System<o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://weedid.missouri.edu/weedinfo.cfm?weed_id=275">University of
Missouri <o:p></o:p></a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Pale swallow-wort<u><o:p></o:p></u></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/pale-swallow-wort">Minnesota<span class="MsoHyperlink"> Department of Agriculture</span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.invasive.org/weedcd/pdfs/wow/pale-swallow-wort.pdf">USDA
Forest Service<o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/PaleSwallowwort.html">Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources <o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/Swallow-wortBCP.pdf">Michigan Department
of Natural Resources<o:p></o:p></a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Red hailstone<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/red-hailstone">Minnesota
Department of Agriculture<o:p></o:p></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://extension.umn.edu/identify-invasive-species/red-hailstone">University
of Minnesota Extension Service<o:p></o:p></a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/red-hailstone">Minnesota
Wildflowers<o:p></o:p></a></p><br />Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-50532752398678944912023-03-07T11:23:00.001-06:002023-03-07T11:23:56.613-06:00The Boon of Biological Nitrogen Fixation<p style="text-align: left;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1R4btUEmP4wh9BYzWY64o3FyXuGndHUazDhXHRvQPDaRkYv2iZk-ucdyKgTvmHSNli49ugTrCWoXP7SRRIoRtaVI_R15Ur36H1-OVb1l99EbBO6ABx_XPZbvXwu5RWYAzZN80maRmRQ44A9XXOU0tPNuOZfNruUf4LBbGQ66Ak2AgP7q8nqNXE-g/s909/White%20clover_Trifolium%20repens.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A patch of white clover in bloom." border="0" data-original-height="571" data-original-width="909" height="402" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1R4btUEmP4wh9BYzWY64o3FyXuGndHUazDhXHRvQPDaRkYv2iZk-ucdyKgTvmHSNli49ugTrCWoXP7SRRIoRtaVI_R15Ur36H1-OVb1l99EbBO6ABx_XPZbvXwu5RWYAzZN80maRmRQ44A9XXOU0tPNuOZfNruUf4LBbGQ66Ak2AgP7q8nqNXE-g/w640-h402/White%20clover_Trifolium%20repens.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">White Clover, <i>Trifolium repens.</i></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></p><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p>White Clover is so common and modest that it’s often ignored.
It’s like background noise: always there but barely noticed, at least until it
flowers. Beneath its ordinary appearance, though, is an extraordinary ability: It
can capture atmospheric nitrogen, N<sub>2</sub>, and convert it to ammonia, NH<sub>3</sub>,
a first step in making nitrogen usable.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Called biological nitrogen fixation, this process is
billions of years old and vital to life as we know it. Although nitrogen gas
composes about 78% of the atmosphere by volume, most living things can’t use
it. We humans, for example, can’t simply take a deep breath and get the
nitrogen we need. We don’t have the molecular machinery to do that. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">But some kinds of bacteria do. They possess nitrogenase, a complex
enzyme that can break the strong bonds in nitrogen molecules and attach the
atoms to hydrogen, making ammonia. Ammonia then goes on to participate in other
reactions that make proteins, DNA and other biomolecules. When these compounds
decay, or when some of the captured nitrogen leaks into the soil, other plants
absorb it. We eat these plants or the animals that graze on them to get
our supply of nitrogen. We can’t live without it.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Clover and other legumes house nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
nodules on their roots. This symbiosis is of mutual benefit: The plants receive
nitrogen from the bacteria, and the bacteria receive energy and carbon
compounds from the plants. The nodules also provide a low-oxygen environment
for nitrogenase to work. A kind of hemoglobin called leghemoglobin scavenges
oxygen that would otherwise disable the enzyme. At the same time, leghemoglobin
provides oxygen for cell respiration, the set of reactions that produces the
energy to drive nitrogen fixation and other processes.<o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhX46GnBNTsmj2bc_YkmrHuw7wkWt-yXhB6rHZp3AsmmnoUKa5811aLRT6k_qIyloa2K21ECnbvuOnnUz6ST7zog9s4D5Z7NzTJPMiKO4KfQB5cgVQse5c1USGqgYsvI4GPhvndjey86enpmuc2u3vm7MhzCY6_I-H7Lymvo7F8-bcaRVSolNZJyN8/s609/Trifolium%20repens%20root%20nodules.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The exposed roots of white clover showing many small nodules attached." border="0" data-original-height="609" data-original-width="564" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhX46GnBNTsmj2bc_YkmrHuw7wkWt-yXhB6rHZp3AsmmnoUKa5811aLRT6k_qIyloa2K21ECnbvuOnnUz6ST7zog9s4D5Z7NzTJPMiKO4KfQB5cgVQse5c1USGqgYsvI4GPhvndjey86enpmuc2u3vm7MhzCY6_I-H7Lymvo7F8-bcaRVSolNZJyN8/w296-h320/Trifolium%20repens%20root%20nodules.JPG" width="296" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Nodules on the roots of White Clover hold bacteria that fix </div><div style="text-align: left;">nitrogen.</div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal">Legumes are the primary biological nitrogen fixers, but a
few plants in other families can do the same. Speckled Alder (<i>Alnus incana</i>),
Silver Buffaloberry (<i>Shepherdia argentea</i>) and New Jersey Tea (<i>Ceanothus
americanus</i>), for example, are non-legumes that also house nitrogen-fixing bacteria
in root nodules. Called actinorhizal plants, they are mostly trees and shrubs
from temperate regions. They are adapted to nutrient-poor soils, so some
of them have been used to restore land degraded by mining, logging, wildfires
or other disturbances.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Other fixers live freely in soil, or they live in close
association with roots but not inside nodules. The latter includes
bacteria that live in the rhizosphere (the near-root environment) of many
grasses, including wheat and corn. Some
researchers are trying to develop nodulating cereal crops that capture more of
the nitrogen they need naturally instead of absorbing it from manufactured,
energy-intensive fertilizer, which now supplies most of the nitrogen needed for agriculture. If they succeed, it could be part of the answer to mitigating climate change – and to feeding a hungry world. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Sources</b><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Wagner, S. C. (2011) <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/biological-nitrogen-fixation-23570419/">Biological
Nitrogen Fixation</a>. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):15<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Bernhard, A. (2010) <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-nitrogen-cycle-processes-players-and-human-15644632/">The
Nitrogen Cycle: Processes, Players, and Human Impact. </a>Nature Education
Knowledge 3(10):25<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Diagne, N., Arumugam, K., Ngom, M., Nambiar-Veetil, M.,
Franche, C., Narayanan, K. K., & Laplaze, L. (2013). Use of <i>Frankia</i>
and actinorhizal plants for degraded lands reclamation. BioMed Research International, 2013,
948258. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/948258">https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/948258</a><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Bakum, J. (2022) <a href="https://www.cimmyt.org/news/biological-nitrogen-fixation-and-prospects-for-ecological-intensification-in-cereal-based-cropping-systems/">Biological
nitrogen fixation and prospects for ecological intensification in cereal-based
cropping systems</a>. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
(CIMMYT). </p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-43720666044700134972023-02-12T12:10:00.003-06:002023-02-14T08:41:45.208-06:00Plant Profile: Black Locust <p> <i>Robinia pseudoacacia</i> L.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI17V1OKimh-viQDaCdQ_OJ3exntuAIbjb2big1z5nuBwUeXAWWwGTVv82K_DxcUCffXWuMYmdgHsDoXKfAFJf7MGAr6lohiQYeeUlPL8hUvkrWvnu8BRebXyYWH1cETQsCr3hsRtEJUdcuwD6Y-4omY_5ryagdgjC87F2uPuuh8DvFtbcobHZ_00/s915/Black%20locust%20Robinia%20pseudoacacia.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A branch of Black Locust with a descending cluster of white, pea-like flowers." border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="915" height="418" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI17V1OKimh-viQDaCdQ_OJ3exntuAIbjb2big1z5nuBwUeXAWWwGTVv82K_DxcUCffXWuMYmdgHsDoXKfAFJf7MGAr6lohiQYeeUlPL8hUvkrWvnu8BRebXyYWH1cETQsCr3hsRtEJUdcuwD6Y-4omY_5ryagdgjC87F2uPuuh8DvFtbcobHZ_00/w640-h418/Black%20locust%20Robinia%20pseudoacacia.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Black Locust flowering in mid-June at Baker Park Reserve, Maple Plain, MN.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal">Black Locust, also called False Acacia or Yellow Acacia, is
a medium to large tree originally from the Appalachian and Ozark mountains.
Intentionally planted for its strong wood, stabilizing roots and attractive flowers,
it has spread widely from its native range. It’s now found in all lower 48
states, several Canadian provinces and every continent around the globe (1, 2).
<o:p></o:p></p>
<h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Black Locust History and Habitat</b></h4><div><br /></div>Although it isn’t native to the Minnesota, Black Locust has been
here a while. The earliest herbarium record in the Minnesota Biodiversity Atlas
(3) is an 1887 specimen collected in Lake City, along the Mississippi
River in the southeast part of the state.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVClf5ose-xryTWnTcZJIRKJvSLsIk5VGOoOoRUGwFtD4saRy4fKhSdDlikUPabJnxtXjUc7LpwPsgxj0ZymS_wiEp2F-PrCV5cubklWcrRNey0qflQBStAOhqhcAqQeVeX6V_xP-57w5GhFu5mSpFQQ4qte6Rtpd-TXY_gN2xYskUwxnGB3ecAXM/s607/Black%20locust%20trees%20flowering.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Black Locust trees in full bloom." border="0" data-original-height="607" data-original-width="401" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVClf5ose-xryTWnTcZJIRKJvSLsIk5VGOoOoRUGwFtD4saRy4fKhSdDlikUPabJnxtXjUc7LpwPsgxj0ZymS_wiEp2F-PrCV5cubklWcrRNey0qflQBStAOhqhcAqQeVeX6V_xP-57w5GhFu5mSpFQQ4qte6Rtpd-TXY_gN2xYskUwxnGB3ecAXM/w264-h400/Black%20locust%20trees%20flowering.JPG" width="264" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Black Locust thrives in full sun. It reproduces quickly </div><div style="text-align: left;">from root suckers. </div></td></tr></tbody></table>In later years, collectors found the plant farther north and
west. The Atlas documents the plant in Duluth in the 1940s and Mankato and Pipestone in the1960s. Records increased in the following decades: 11 in
the 70s and 80s, 18 in the 90s. Then collections taper off, perhaps because the
plant became so abundant that it was no longer a novelty.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">It’s unsettling, this march across the state. Black Locust
has escaped plantings to become naturalized, and where this adaptable plant finds
sun and anything but waterlogged soils, it survives and even thrives. Old
fields, rights of way and degraded woods are now part of its expanded habitat.
So are prairies, savannas and open forests, where single species stands
of Black Locust can challenge restoration (4, 5, 6). <o:p></o:p></p>
<h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Adapted for Colonization</b></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal">Black Locust is aided in its spread by its pioneer habit, a
set of adaptations for quick colonization of canopy gaps and other
disturbances. It grows fast and produces abundant seeds carried by wind, water
and gravity. Although seeds may drop and germinate below their parent plants, within
a stand the trees reproduce mainly by vigorous root suckers and stump sprouts, shoots
that arise from roots and trunks. That’s especially true if the trees are
damaged, such as from a storm or from cutting, and explains why Black Locust is
so resilient and persistent.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">What’s more, Black Locust is a legume, a member of the bean
family, Fabaceae. Like other plants in that family, it can fix nitrogen. Nodules
on its roots hold bacteria that can convert nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to
ammonia, a usable form. That’s an advantage in nutrient-poor soils, and not
just for Black Locust. Soils enriched with this captured nitrogen support other
plants, including non-native ones that may further displace native species (7).
<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>The Neonative Debate</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">For these reasons, even inside its native range Black Locust
is known to be weedy. Outside its range it’s often called invasive, but some biologists
stop short of calling it non-native. Because its historical range is in North America, they prefer to call it a <b>neonative,</b> a species that isn’t native (here
before Europeans) but also isn’t non-native (from another continent).</p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu_xa0VtuPCrtOp-2BR6PSusGFmk1q4fGcMqkRHKGBcrkxZF-mgsSNoWxBjRb1NLFdzGiUWRcODGraRTAkDuij_jcfUFxm7Q-0vxkdj70NQvxFussCe065hEjiOe1CxKFJdF5m0ce77OxcaRv8s4hhQMphsusyO3SL8I_6kwBRls8vYGNGUaq9S7s/s2472/Black%20locust%20distribution%20with%20native%20range.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A North American distribution map of Black Locust showing its spread through much of the U.S. and parts of Canada." border="0" data-original-height="1723" data-original-width="2472" height="446" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu_xa0VtuPCrtOp-2BR6PSusGFmk1q4fGcMqkRHKGBcrkxZF-mgsSNoWxBjRb1NLFdzGiUWRcODGraRTAkDuij_jcfUFxm7Q-0vxkdj70NQvxFussCe065hEjiOe1CxKFJdF5m0ce77OxcaRv8s4hhQMphsusyO3SL8I_6kwBRls8vYGNGUaq9S7s/w640-h446/Black%20locust%20distribution%20with%20native%20range.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Black Locust's distribution is in green, from EDDMapS (17). Approximate native range is added and circled in red, based on a map from the USDA Southern Research Station (18).</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal">As it was originally defined, a neonative species is one
that moves to a new area in response to an environmental change, such as a warming
climate (8). Such species arrive without direct human intervention, and because
they come on their own, they challenge our ideas about which species
belong in an area and which don’t – and therefore which should stay, and which
shouldn’t (9).</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Black Locust doesn’t quite fit that definition. Humans
brought it here, so it’s not a neonative in the original sense of the word. The label
stuck, though, and now Black Locust, the “nuisance neonative,” has a mixed
reputation. In this area it’s bad for biodiversity, especially in natural areas,
but in its home range it’s good for native insects and other animals (10). In
the Midwest the nitrogen it adds to soils can alter natural communities in undesirable
ways, but where mine lands need to be reclaimed, nitrogen enrichment aids
recovery. And where forests and prairies need protection, Black Locust’s suckering
growth is a problem, but where soils are eroding, the trees’ clutching roots are a solution (19). </p>
<h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Overseas, a Similar Story</b></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal">The debate is just as vigorous in Europe. Black Locust was
introduced there in the 1600s and now is found in more than 40 countries. It
has been widely planted, and although it’s considered one of the worst
invasive plants in the continent, it’s also valued for biomass production,
erosion control and honey-making (11, 12).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Biologists there recommend a “tiered approach” to managing Black Locust:
Remove it from natural areas but keep it in commercial forests, in urban
plantings and in selected forests where succession, the gradual change in plant
community composition, is allowed to play out <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(12).</p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Winter Identification</b></h4><p class="MsoNormal">Mature Black Locust hold 3- to 4-inch-long, brown pods through
winter. Each contains 4-8 seeds. Buds are alternate, but they’re under the leaf
scars and barely visible. Nodes often have a pair of stout thorns, ½ to 1 ½
inches long. Branches and young trunks may also have thorns. Mature bark is
dark gray or brown with deep furrows and flat-topped ridges. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNfcOKQtiS3Hb9mWYVcbpgBy8idR-EoA8XeBvVbyYoId_6b_p_rwN1byjnEJwDdkjtqhVWj9-TA0L12QxvRGxZQXRWNIKc66Mom1y8fQecE3SP_cDzJh8OnlivRnE0oirWz2HvxzckG1TZ7HOTyXAG4zjeqEIeiU7gBF2drRWT_d8QuHHcedo9IIM/s4165/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20pods.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of photos showing Black Locust trees and closeups of pods." border="0" data-original-height="1832" data-original-width="4165" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNfcOKQtiS3Hb9mWYVcbpgBy8idR-EoA8XeBvVbyYoId_6b_p_rwN1byjnEJwDdkjtqhVWj9-TA0L12QxvRGxZQXRWNIKc66Mom1y8fQecE3SP_cDzJh8OnlivRnE0oirWz2HvxzckG1TZ7HOTyXAG4zjeqEIeiU7gBF2drRWT_d8QuHHcedo9IIM/w640-h282/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20pods.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Black Locust pods hang on mature trees through winter. Each pod is 3-4 inches long.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmExziytg7lhPj8d3bD4045GCYIqc4dFzO0SM2XOmIkVRUmhvp4_65VaSz5qxH1hJz4OP1t2ib05D2DUvsHVCAUicPe8qS4afx0Lqbt55dCtU7JJATVEW0W31xaOQR1loEpeqh8FDknhhldwz3N0utacsk3izcWw4Xg-YebTe8THQjso0lTcqp98g/s3376/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20nodes%20thorns.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of photos showing a Black Locust branch with thorny nodes and a cracked leaf scar over a hidden bud." border="0" data-original-height="1113" data-original-width="3376" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmExziytg7lhPj8d3bD4045GCYIqc4dFzO0SM2XOmIkVRUmhvp4_65VaSz5qxH1hJz4OP1t2ib05D2DUvsHVCAUicPe8qS4afx0Lqbt55dCtU7JJATVEW0W31xaOQR1loEpeqh8FDknhhldwz3N0utacsk3izcWw4Xg-YebTe8THQjso0lTcqp98g/w640-h210/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20nodes%20thorns.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Black Locust buds are alternate but lie under the leaf scars, which may be cracked on their surfaces.</div><div style="text-align: left;">A pair of stout thorns is found at most nodes. </div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAiOaWNv7RRv_BdaNeh6L_gKkX3NB1iHpdJMQXtExfVM-TrIQrh0c3oQnVG1q-brAq_3IzlRTN9CcQGENzWD22aa0EwBlTIEK-hrI7lVDOaYDVW6u3ZTYzhr8XlsjkMjyNh_QWxuOA8J0LBHcBWgk9tYJapQkoVNCQL2h4eNSU8pD5m6YdyUdBFos/s1487/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20trunk%20thorns.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A Black Locust trunk with dark, furrowed bark and stout thorns." border="0" data-original-height="1487" data-original-width="1103" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAiOaWNv7RRv_BdaNeh6L_gKkX3NB1iHpdJMQXtExfVM-TrIQrh0c3oQnVG1q-brAq_3IzlRTN9CcQGENzWD22aa0EwBlTIEK-hrI7lVDOaYDVW6u3ZTYzhr8XlsjkMjyNh_QWxuOA8J0LBHcBWgk9tYJapQkoVNCQL2h4eNSU8pD5m6YdyUdBFos/w296-h400/Black%20Locust%20winter%20ID%20trunk%20thorns.jpg" width="296" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Mature bark is dark brown or gray with deep furrows</div><div style="text-align: left;">and flat-topped ridges. Smaller trunks bear thorns.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Look-alikes</h4><p class="MsoNormal">Prickly Ash (<i>Zanthoxylum americanum</i>) is a shrub or
small tree that also has pairs of thorns at the nodes, but the thorns are only
¼ to ½ inch long. Buds are red, fuzzy and clearly visible. Prickly Ash does not produce pods. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">From a distance, Kentucky Coffee Tree (<i>Gymnocladus
dioicus</i>) resembles Black Locust. Pods on mature females are larger than
those of Black Locust and filled with a green mash. The tree has no thorns. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Honey Locust (<i>Gleditsia triacanthos</i>), likely
introduced to Minnesota as cultivated varieties, also has persistent pods, but they’re
much longer than Black Locust – about 16 inches. Some trees have large,
three-parted thorns on their trunks (13). <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfuAMWDdcffTVZpr2xvlcMJOBgBS6SWtnJ2GJjRhLmDEj8PVCJV_wR1vCEz3PefENrerNUIE4Ed1TZtPOMkg4Qhvm_zGZiMtgMGhHaOleFR3Xi-Fs13D6TFsaygRPrJP42Qkq2uc3BU0yTArPk5WRQsfEjqPVd-vKdi00Vba-nyRsqhZCufWMRLAk/s848/Prickly%20ash%20twig.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A Prickly Ash twig showing fuzzy, red buds and small thorns at nodes." border="0" data-original-height="567" data-original-width="848" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfuAMWDdcffTVZpr2xvlcMJOBgBS6SWtnJ2GJjRhLmDEj8PVCJV_wR1vCEz3PefENrerNUIE4Ed1TZtPOMkg4Qhvm_zGZiMtgMGhHaOleFR3Xi-Fs13D6TFsaygRPrJP42Qkq2uc3BU0yTArPk5WRQsfEjqPVd-vKdi00Vba-nyRsqhZCufWMRLAk/w400-h268/Prickly%20ash%20twig.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Prickly Ash buds are red and fuzzy. The pair of thorns at the nodes are smaller</div><div style="text-align: left;">than those of Black Locust</div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc_7DnXJPUlpD2xJV1icNf0P5ynmFra7FmL1hX-PgsRXzVGJAqd8qMImeGARjC-Vp99uSchNV6fa9gUXRDi3BRVU8u3HqCkP8QAJpIV6lHpiNHot18DXciltawboV3f5UF7y8iaALidvfHmLnt0h0rloFPlYYRzwvAmxtyaqkt4BgGy7-vlElz-aY/s4105/Kentucky%20Coffee%20Tree%20winter%20ID.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of photos showing a female Kentucky Coffee Tree, a closeup of its pods, and an opened pod showing seeds embedded in a green mash." border="0" data-original-height="2014" data-original-width="4105" height="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc_7DnXJPUlpD2xJV1icNf0P5ynmFra7FmL1hX-PgsRXzVGJAqd8qMImeGARjC-Vp99uSchNV6fa9gUXRDi3BRVU8u3HqCkP8QAJpIV6lHpiNHot18DXciltawboV3f5UF7y8iaALidvfHmLnt0h0rloFPlYYRzwvAmxtyaqkt4BgGy7-vlElz-aY/w640-h314/Kentucky%20Coffee%20Tree%20winter%20ID.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption">Female Kentucky Coffee Trees carry pods through winter, but they're much larger than those of Black Locust. Seeds are embedded in a sticky, green mash.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Regulation</b></h4><p class="MsoNormal">The Minnesota Department of Agriculture includes Black
Locust on its list of Restricted noxious weeds, meaning the plant can’t be
imported, sold or transported except as allowed by state law (14). The rules are similar in Wisconsin (15). <o:p></o:p></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Black Locust Toxicity</b></h4><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal">Leaves, bark and seeds contain robin and phasin, compounds
that interfere with protein synthesis and can kill cells. Horses are especially
sensitive to these toxins, but humans can also get sick with nausea, weakness,
flushing and lethargy. If any part of the plant is ingested, seek medical help
immediately (16). <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>References</b></p><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database (<a href="http://plants.usda.gov/">http://plants.usda.gov</a>, 02/02/2023). National
Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust). CABI. CABI
Compendium, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.47698"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.4769</span>8</a><span style="background: white;">. Accessed Feb. 2, 2023. </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->University of Minnesota Bell Museum Minnesota
Biodiversity Atlas. <a href="https://www.bellmuseum.umn.edu/atlas/">https://www.bellmuseum.umn.edu/atlas/</a>
Accessed Feb. 2, 2023.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. <a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/woody/blacklocust.html">Black
locust (<i>Robinia pseudoacacia</i>).</a> Accessed Feb. 2, 2023. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Minnesota Department of Agriculture. <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/blacklocust">Black
Locust</a>. Accessed Feb. 2, 2023. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Woody Invasives of the Great Lakes Collaborative.
<a href="https://woodyinvasives.org/woody-invasive-species/black-locust/">Black
locust</a>. Accessed Feb. 2, 2023.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">7)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Von Holle, B., Neill, C., Largay, E.F., et al.
2013. Ecosystem legacy of the introduced N<sub>2</sub>-fixing tree <i>Robinia
pseudoacacia </i>in a coastal forest.<i> </i>Oecologia 172: 915-924. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2543-1">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2543-1</a></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">8)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Essl, F. et al. 2019. A conceptual framework for
range-expanding species that track human-induced environmental change.
Bioscience 69 (11): 908-919. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biz101"><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #006fb7; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biz101</span></a></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">9)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Shah, S. 2020. <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/native-species-or-invasive-the-distinction-blurs-as-the-world-warms#:~:text=Essl%20and%20his%20colleagues%20have,in%20response%20to%20environmental%20changes">Native
Species or Invasive? The Distinction Blurs as the World Warms</a>. Yale E360. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">10)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Jaffe, D. <a href="https://www.ecolandscaping.org/04/landscape-challenges/invasive-plants/rethinking-black-locust/">Rethinking
Black Locust</a>. Posted in 2019 on the website for the Ecological Landscape
Alliance. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">11)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Sitzia, T., Cierjacks, A., de Rigo, D., and
Caudullo, G. 2016. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299471371_Robinia_pseudoacacia_in_Europe_distribution_habitat_usage_and_threats">Robinia
pseudoacacia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats.</a> <i>In</i>
European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Ed: San-Miguel-Avanz, J., de Rigo, D.,
Caudullo, G., Durrant, T., and Mauri, A. Publication Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext">12)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="text">Vítková</span><span class="author-ref"><sup><span style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 107%;">, </span></sup></span><span class="text">M., Müllerová, J., Sádlo, J., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P. 2017. Black
locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) beloved and despised: A story of an invasive tree
in Central Europe. Forest Ecology and Management 384: 287-302. DOI: </span><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.10.057" target="_blank" title="Persistent link using digital object identifier"><span style="color: #0c7dbb; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10.1016/j.foreco.2016.10.057</span></a></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span class="text">13)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Smith, W.R. 2008. Trees and Shrubs of
Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">14)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Minnesota Department of Agriculture. <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants-insects/minnesota-noxious-weed-list">Minnesota
Noxious Weed List</a>. Accessed Feb. 6, 2023. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">15)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. <a href="https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/BlackLocust.html">Black
Locust</a>. Accessed Feb. 6, 2023.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">16)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Poison Control. <a href="https://www.poison.org/articles/are-black-locust-trees-toxic-221">Are
Black Locust Trees Toxic?</a> National Capital Poison Center. Accessed Feb. 9,
2023. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">17)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->EDDMapS. 2023. Early Detection & Distribution
Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and
Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed
February 11, 2023.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">18)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Huntley, J.C. No date. <a href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654/volume_2/robinia/pseudoacacia.htm#:~:text=Native%20Range&text=central%20Arkansas%20and%20southeastern%20Oklahoma,parts%20of%20Europe%20and%20Asia.">Black
Locust.</a> USDA Southern Research Station. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">19)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Farmer, S. 2020. <a href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/compass/2020/04/02/black-locust-drought/">Black
Locust & Drought</a>. CompassLive, USDA Southern Research Station.</p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-69642467430468057152023-01-06T11:52:00.003-06:002023-01-23T11:27:05.266-06:00What Is a False Terminal Bud?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVzFKj95rUfVPPJeveL6lzdh7NABZn2ie37B2Dc2XxWbZD_1-930NF_IjoaQ7afdufqXpd5BHKWZVcfpcsBWqB2OdF8-EUpU8jp2_NKRABVbBVhjbYBwvwSW2dgFX5DOTrRb91lu9pw17MwFIqh58WNL8_jGwm4mY-_s1b-FIfY11hsxmENwT0TXE/s1054/Basswood%20winter%20twig.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A basswood winter twig with red lateral and terminal buds." border="0" data-original-height="575" data-original-width="1054" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVzFKj95rUfVPPJeveL6lzdh7NABZn2ie37B2Dc2XxWbZD_1-930NF_IjoaQ7afdufqXpd5BHKWZVcfpcsBWqB2OdF8-EUpU8jp2_NKRABVbBVhjbYBwvwSW2dgFX5DOTrRb91lu9pw17MwFIqh58WNL8_jGwm4mY-_s1b-FIfY11hsxmENwT0TXE/w640-h350/Basswood%20winter%20twig.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">On trees and shrubs, a false terminal bud is a lateral bud at
the end of a twig. Unlike a true terminal bud, it doesn’t enclose the growth at the tip of a
stem or branch.</div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">This happens in some species when growing shoots don’t
harden off in fall. Instead, their stems die back, leaving the end-most lateral
buds to take over as the last buds on the twigs. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">According to several keys, false terminal buds are found
only on woody plants with alternate lateral buds. The stems of plants with
opposite buds may also wither or die back before winter, but the end-most pair
of buds are not called false terminal buds. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">This difference may seem trivial, but some winter keys use false
and true terminal buds to separate species into groups or to confirm a plant’s
identity. Fortunately, with a hand lens and some practice, there are reliable
ways to recognize each.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>True terminal buds</b></h4><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Consider a stem of a deciduous (leaf-shedding) tree or shrub
with alternate leaves along its length and a growing shoot at its tip. By
mid-summer, the plant begins forming buds in leaf axils, the angles between leaves
and stems. These are axillary or lateral buds, also called leaf buds.
When leaves are shed in fall, their petioles (leaf stalks) leave marks below
these buds, called leaf scars. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal">At the same time, growth stops at the tip of the stem and
the young shoot is enclosed in either bud scales or protective leaves. This is
a true terminal bud (c). It has no leaf scar (b) below it, and it is often larger than
lateral buds (a). </p><p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTBPfJDdzeFEMBlFENbpWEb8pA5vVC8tcTxvl_GxelmUj-wXIk-ShS6-8t0Z5gW-hrsG5pdm3YN1y9ewTFeiKglcxfd9Uo5F7GTgVkX78tOgdQjiGN-ZAzKsRN80Erz9ru6UyzNzZ31_fz0UW67ADIpKkkJTGMOhSiRnLCL7uII3E32a2FVG2rcOI/s2118/True%20terminal%20bud%20diagram.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A diagram of a branch that develops a true terminal bud, labeled "c," and lateral buds and leaf scars, labeled "a" and "b."" border="0" data-original-height="795" data-original-width="2118" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTBPfJDdzeFEMBlFENbpWEb8pA5vVC8tcTxvl_GxelmUj-wXIk-ShS6-8t0Z5gW-hrsG5pdm3YN1y9ewTFeiKglcxfd9Uo5F7GTgVkX78tOgdQjiGN-ZAzKsRN80Erz9ru6UyzNzZ31_fz0UW67ADIpKkkJTGMOhSiRnLCL7uII3E32a2FVG2rcOI/w640-h240/True%20terminal%20bud%20diagram.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">I</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>False terminal buds</b></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal">Now consider a stem that, instead of forming a terminal bud,
dies back to the closest lateral bud. This is a false terminal bud. It has a leaf
scar below it and is about the same size as other lateral buds. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The stub of the withered stem may project above the base of
the bud on the side opposite the leaf scar. The mark it leaves, called a branch scar (b), can
be mistaken for a leaf scar, but it won’t have vascular bundle scars. This can
be hard to see without a hand lens. Also, in some species with false terminal
buds, the bud is noticeably angled toward or away from the twig (a).</p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhD7aNeA_PmOxShuGQiTjcem94C7LSG9sKVxrgsR8kFjrl1FrKvj3HpEn2ay5Kkau_skIFRg9yIoWYzV9_C6PTdDcJFeo6PPT_YIskQzT6btRCmHSQNZOSbCQNTwXVgfAh_zR3frnyz7i-GPbLBy6kUlE88vBiOc8jAioXKHYGCsoY42voz8EAog54/s2241/False%20terminal%20bud%20diagram.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A diagram of a branch that develops a false terminal bud, labeled "a," and the branch scar that sits above the base of the bud, labeled "b."" border="0" data-original-height="794" data-original-width="2241" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhD7aNeA_PmOxShuGQiTjcem94C7LSG9sKVxrgsR8kFjrl1FrKvj3HpEn2ay5Kkau_skIFRg9yIoWYzV9_C6PTdDcJFeo6PPT_YIskQzT6btRCmHSQNZOSbCQNTwXVgfAh_zR3frnyz7i-GPbLBy6kUlE88vBiOc8jAioXKHYGCsoY42voz8EAog54/w640-h226/False%20terminal%20bud%20diagram.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal"><br /><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Examples</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Black Walnut (<i>Juglans nigra</i>) is a tree with alternate
buds (a) and heart-shaped or three-lobed leaf scars. The true terminal bud (b) is
larger than the lateral buds and does not have a leaf scar. The last lateral bud (c) sits just below the terminal bud. </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisBV3c42xSOORbfWu_QwShN9kWg2j_rfUl-7rHYfVwNyT7LWj3Z4yE9TtqvMBLGpKkultE4jbjbH4vT-nq72vd2vP3W2Imm0cdlq223US9LA4s0JffxzZykuVrqC7KYE4_F8R-H_JI8OPFcA0sxlyAkKX7QQcSNEgZt9vzTgI6Xauiy_XgEOa2va0/s1016/Black%20walnut%20true%20terminal%20bud.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A series of three photos showing lateral and true terminal buds of black walnut." border="0" data-original-height="419" data-original-width="1016" height="264" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisBV3c42xSOORbfWu_QwShN9kWg2j_rfUl-7rHYfVwNyT7LWj3Z4yE9TtqvMBLGpKkultE4jbjbH4vT-nq72vd2vP3W2Imm0cdlq223US9LA4s0JffxzZykuVrqC7KYE4_F8R-H_JI8OPFcA0sxlyAkKX7QQcSNEgZt9vzTgI6Xauiy_XgEOa2va0/w640-h264/Black%20walnut%20true%20terminal%20bud.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><p class="MsoNormal">American Elm (<i>Ulmus americana</i>), another tree with
alternate buds, has false terminal buds. In the photos below, a branch scar is evident above the base of the bud (a) and a leaf scar (b) is on the opposite side, below the bud. Like some other species with false terminal buds, the bud is angled. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVFj4YJPS6ibwXeWUsospmx5l6wYbTEd-KZMc2HZqB9ixi8In67XkHAhl4RK2LlVE_vN8zYsWi5nP8bGNOj9bJkbV2bNp3vMqNZRye8Nw5oSyfoT3X4uWyaGU1oNhVqeAvvNKS263a5-EM_PkC32HedsODhzMOXpnihHA779RWOOcjeN4o58r426M/s862/American%20elm%20false%20terminal%20bud.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A series of three photos showing the false terminal bud, leaf scar and branch scar on a winter twig of American elm." border="0" data-original-height="436" data-original-width="862" height="324" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVFj4YJPS6ibwXeWUsospmx5l6wYbTEd-KZMc2HZqB9ixi8In67XkHAhl4RK2LlVE_vN8zYsWi5nP8bGNOj9bJkbV2bNp3vMqNZRye8Nw5oSyfoT3X4uWyaGU1oNhVqeAvvNKS263a5-EM_PkC32HedsODhzMOXpnihHA779RWOOcjeN4o58r426M/w640-h324/American%20elm%20false%20terminal%20bud.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Silver Maple (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) is a tree with
opposite or paired lateral buds (a) and a true terminal bud (b) that is larger than the lateral buds and has no leaf scar (c). The last pair of buds (d) sits just below the terminal bud. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuDgpEcg2-X-smfHvOyR22Z5XKDMqLBEx-nVFQWocBXfxcaq2svDeuBv-y8U2snhrJSmrnZ9jxGLPfA1YGomG4iQBtBg4_QwaPkOvuHQ23flW8H5XvHCRqRk0d81yfg44ufPrSuVDckPHH8TSv_AU8NFsBbY8peM84QGLg47UJ97a2Fum5q0B8GWw/s908/Silver%20maple%20terminal%20bud.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Two photos showing the true terminal bud, opposite lateral buds and leaf scars on a winter twig of silver maple." border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="908" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuDgpEcg2-X-smfHvOyR22Z5XKDMqLBEx-nVFQWocBXfxcaq2svDeuBv-y8U2snhrJSmrnZ9jxGLPfA1YGomG4iQBtBg4_QwaPkOvuHQ23flW8H5XvHCRqRk0d81yfg44ufPrSuVDckPHH8TSv_AU8NFsBbY8peM84QGLg47UJ97a2Fum5q0B8GWw/w640-h280/Silver%20maple%20terminal%20bud.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Basswood (<i>Tilia americana</i>) is a tree with alternate
lateral buds and false terminal buds. Below, the false terminal bud has a leaf scar (a) and is about the same size as the lateral bud below it. The branch scar (b) is smaller and darker than the leaf scar. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqX9Q9An5rnQ6hqjzlvhwnMujfhTuaHknSyYDDh8_KfvUeXfI9VfFZzaFF_PZqttJLA1gciikm73sBlsHfP8wYTsEX-dHeDbr4abH-23dccVacmRFgAE4ySBYTO4dsg6IeZHflcwNUXcwgWkElyYAE1QCuCjOBVy2o0vllfNeNcJ7DIKktiUFDYV0/s743/Basswood%20false%20terminal%20bud.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of three photos showing the false terminal bud, leaf scar and branch scar on a winter twig of basswood." border="0" data-original-height="369" data-original-width="743" height="318" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqX9Q9An5rnQ6hqjzlvhwnMujfhTuaHknSyYDDh8_KfvUeXfI9VfFZzaFF_PZqttJLA1gciikm73sBlsHfP8wYTsEX-dHeDbr4abH-23dccVacmRFgAE4ySBYTO4dsg6IeZHflcwNUXcwgWkElyYAE1QCuCjOBVy2o0vllfNeNcJ7DIKktiUFDYV0/w640-h318/Basswood%20false%20terminal%20bud.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Highbush Cranberry (<i>Viburnum trilobum, V. opulus</i>) is a
shrub with opposite buds. It does not form terminal buds of any kind. Instead, in fall, the ends of the stems (a) wither back to the last pair of
opposite buds (b), which will resume growth in spring. As this pattern repeats, the
shrub branches in a Y-shaped form called sympodial growth (c).</p><p></p></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii69bxvqUvCp9FilF48fnvJU48CePINQN_pbAHDpD3MtF_GbQtYSP_UW3WPv55SQHk-magaVk6taCb3cs0plJ_lSLwNrmGzFuBltbEdhL4YURyyaIJBriSDYoOhSB4wBbfjH7YvXTl3RzibI_fAPONiCA4MWpF1ZD6U4yANciWahsYELE1fkYSKS8/s911/Highbush%20cranberry%20sympodial%20growth.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Two photos showing stems of highbush cranberry withered back to the last pair of opposite buds. One photo shows the Y-shaped branching pattern that results from the growth of the lateral buds in spring." border="0" data-original-height="311" data-original-width="911" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii69bxvqUvCp9FilF48fnvJU48CePINQN_pbAHDpD3MtF_GbQtYSP_UW3WPv55SQHk-magaVk6taCb3cs0plJ_lSLwNrmGzFuBltbEdhL4YURyyaIJBriSDYoOhSB4wBbfjH7YvXTl3RzibI_fAPONiCA4MWpF1ZD6U4yANciWahsYELE1fkYSKS8/w672-h229/Highbush%20cranberry%20sympodial%20growth.png" width="672" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;"><br /><br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br /><div><br /></div><div><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></h4><h4 style="text-align: left;"><b>Some Winter ID Guides</b></h4><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The following guides can help with winter ID of trees and
shrubs. When using any guide or key, look at several twigs and buds to see
what’s typical. Variations are common.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www3.uwsp.edu/cnr-ap/leaf/Pages/default.aspx"><span style="color: blue;">The LEAF Program</span></a> from UW-Stevens Point is a
K-12 forestry education initiative that offers many online resources. Under
Curriculum & Resources, choose LEAF Tree Identification Tools. The LEAF
Winter Tree ID Key is available there as a downloadable PDF.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><u><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://www.ccfpd.org/Portals/0/Assets/PDF/WinterTreeIDpocketguide.pdf">Pocket
Reference for Winter Tree Identification.</a></span></u><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Champaign County Forest Preserves, Mahomet, IL.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fruit and Twig Key to
Trees and Shrubs, by William M. Harlow, PhD. Reprint edition, 1959. Dover
Publications, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-486-20511-8. <o:p></o:p></span></p><br /></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-71391573164655276432022-12-19T10:55:00.006-06:002023-01-06T11:56:07.775-06:00Winter Identification of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh68qZ1obh8XCZeQYaW0yUzT9ROPy35-ahqBPnFh8ZJB-frvPYFh1jls3cnXXlWc8ciumvVrdaUNdi8aBhznc2HMaoK2BJ23AqcpKmv7TB3xUeqZxPTzkwsqCdzKaiFQpP2FP1Y4Bi1N8oHSK4S1NVicBQDDTuH0POA-HwkgGrzGIrmqa_-SQlLGr4/s954/Ironwood%20in%20snowy%20understory.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Several ironwood trees with brown leaves in a snowy understory." border="0" data-original-height="621" data-original-width="954" height="416" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh68qZ1obh8XCZeQYaW0yUzT9ROPy35-ahqBPnFh8ZJB-frvPYFh1jls3cnXXlWc8ciumvVrdaUNdi8aBhznc2HMaoK2BJ23AqcpKmv7TB3xUeqZxPTzkwsqCdzKaiFQpP2FP1Y4Bi1N8oHSK4S1NVicBQDDTuH0POA-HwkgGrzGIrmqa_-SQlLGr4/w640-h416/Ironwood%20in%20snowy%20understory.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">In winter, trees and shrubs can be identified using twigs, bark, overwintering fruit and sometimes leaves. This post offers some tips and terms for winter ID. A printable version is available for free through the Downloads tab. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #1: If they're within reach, look at twigs. </h4><div><br /></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihI20d6_j6MJ5QXTsjWzoZvO5Pgv-LcdXhb4xyTAaNdo4XC2I9jrC7Mq2zkbg5a4M4CEAyaM3O5wFjNoL3M7e0i0eGBZgUnD0Kh54zTBGA7C1OTtFB0dh9i2mZPfSVEO_17_fgjMypLvx3cv4qbk95GyLx_GQzf4zEMfH0pE-dPTFdWiVWaIqt-V0/s3371/Green%20ash%20twig.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A twig of green ash showing nodes, brown, blunt buds, and pale, semicircular leaf scars." border="0" data-original-height="981" data-original-width="3371" height="186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihI20d6_j6MJ5QXTsjWzoZvO5Pgv-LcdXhb4xyTAaNdo4XC2I9jrC7Mq2zkbg5a4M4CEAyaM3O5wFjNoL3M7e0i0eGBZgUnD0Kh54zTBGA7C1OTtFB0dh9i2mZPfSVEO_17_fgjMypLvx3cv4qbk95GyLx_GQzf4zEMfH0pE-dPTFdWiVWaIqt-V0/w640-h186/Green%20ash%20twig.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>As in this photograph of Green Ash (<i>Fraxinus pennsylvanica</i>), look for the size, color, shape and texture of terminal, or end, buds and lateral, or side, buds (b). Lateral buds are attached at nodes (a) and are arranged in one of four patterns:</div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Alternate: One bud per node<span> </span></li><li><span>Opposite: Paired, or two buds per node</span></li><li><span>Subopposite: Paired but not quite opposite</span></li><li><span>Whorled: Three buds per node</span></li></ul></div><div>Green Ash has opposite buds (d). </div><div><br /></div><div>The size and shape of leaf scars (c) can also help identify a species. These scars are left by petioles, or leaf stalks, when they fall from the tree. Green Ash typically has light, semicircular leaf scars.</div><div><br /></div><div> </div><h4 style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b>Tip #2: Within leaf scars, look for vascular bundle scars.</b></h4><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">These scars are made when strands of water- and food-conducting cells are severed in fall. Their size, number and arrangement are typical for a species. Some are easier to see with a magnifying lens. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRtv5Y9JYZpeUdyKT7eteBUpUnVFccfpnuBsTIWZyUmMe-ySFR39xv13hnlREMunPlOO-l0JxByigURhCzCJFOAmct2zRT1WfVQemhGtORvRazlZfUjFeNsRhcYv99KnIkCm-TAFnti0UDDiVJp0_x_tznVZKFpqPHDwH4-srDB32lnztcEY2TPnM/s2039/Vascular%20bundle%20scars.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A series of three photos showing the vascular bundle scars of green ash, red elderberry and Catalpa." border="0" data-original-height="614" data-original-width="2039" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRtv5Y9JYZpeUdyKT7eteBUpUnVFccfpnuBsTIWZyUmMe-ySFR39xv13hnlREMunPlOO-l0JxByigURhCzCJFOAmct2zRT1WfVQemhGtORvRazlZfUjFeNsRhcYv99KnIkCm-TAFnti0UDDiVJp0_x_tznVZKFpqPHDwH4-srDB32lnztcEY2TPnM/w640-h192/Vascular%20bundle%20scars.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Above left: Green Ash bundle scars are small, brown dots arranged in a semicircle.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Center: The bundle scars of Red Elderberry (<i>Sambucus racemosa</i>) are raised, irregular shapes arranged at the points and along the sides of a triangular leaf scar. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Right: The bundle scars of Northern Catalpa (<i>Catalpa speciosa</i>) are light brown dots arranged in an oval.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><h4 style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Tip #3: Look at bark. </h4><p>Bark color and texture are helpful clues but can change with age. Also look for lenticels, spots or irregular shapes on the bark of younger trees or shrubs. In the photographs of Green Ash below, lenticels are the white spots on the reddish-brown bark of the sapling shown on the left (arrows).</p><p>On the right is a mature Green Ash showing the typical honeycomb-like pattern of ridges and furrows of its bark.</p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggOVF1KVRN42GmrthVGfEN5vUeeDiqwpHUcfMAQwdnRWQ_9zIBaMteN5sIXLnkQNHRf34cEu46ktrdgTkutl27CRHLJpQmUrXGX4hygvo9QtAsssOZzg51wzIl_q9mklGLBaGNEobnzNeK81la_gqmDDinYHutLXBUjiYfVO_8eiedniZfO-3P09o/s2040/Green%20ash%20bark.jpg" style="clear: left; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img alt="Two photos showing the reddish-brown, speckled bark of a green ash sapling and the gray, honeycombed bark of a mature tree." border="0" data-original-height="901" data-original-width="2040" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggOVF1KVRN42GmrthVGfEN5vUeeDiqwpHUcfMAQwdnRWQ_9zIBaMteN5sIXLnkQNHRf34cEu46ktrdgTkutl27CRHLJpQmUrXGX4hygvo9QtAsssOZzg51wzIl_q9mklGLBaGNEobnzNeK81la_gqmDDinYHutLXBUjiYfVO_8eiedniZfO-3P09o/w640-h282/Green%20ash%20bark.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><br /><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #4: Look for overwintering fruit.</h4><p>Some species retain their fruits, or parts of them, well into winter. Also look under the shrub or tree for fruits that may be on the ground or on top of the snow.</p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxCkfp7gQJWUrTrFkFGn7TDq7wgL_hc4jV_OTH-2bERMnyNqTkUBZqil6rcsuFiajuV7K5HF_V8JmVWH-SL4JPCIL02HwRqih9wzNhFOfAjavNaAEzwtQ6ExqN5GeZ0eeyUigTluEV4zOScEmUk4i6VLqjmO40N5nqaGS_hsLtE9i_eNFfSLiaKn4/s1459/Winter%20fruits.jpg" style="clear: left; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img alt="A panel of four photos showing the overwintering fruits of winged burning bush, box elder, Kentucky coffee tree, and Amur cork tree." border="0" data-original-height="1282" data-original-width="1459" height="562" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxCkfp7gQJWUrTrFkFGn7TDq7wgL_hc4jV_OTH-2bERMnyNqTkUBZqil6rcsuFiajuV7K5HF_V8JmVWH-SL4JPCIL02HwRqih9wzNhFOfAjavNaAEzwtQ6ExqN5GeZ0eeyUigTluEV4zOScEmUk4i6VLqjmO40N5nqaGS_hsLtE9i_eNFfSLiaKn4/w640-h562/Winter%20fruits.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><p>Clockwise from top left: Red capsule walls of Winged Burning Bush, <i>Euonymus alatus</i>; samaras of Box Elder, <i>Acer negundo</i>; pods of Kentucky Coffee Tree, <i>Gymnocladus dioicus,</i> each 3 to 4 inches (7-10 cm) long; and the fruits of Amur Cork Tree, <i>Phellodendron amurense</i>. </p><p><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #5: A few species hold on to their leaves.</h4><p>Some trees are marcescent -- their leaves turn brown but aren't shed in fall. In this region, oaks (<i>Quercus</i>), Ironwood (<i>Ostrya virginiana</i>) and Blue Beech (<i>Carpinus caroliniana</i>) are among the few trees that are marcescent. </p><p>Below is Ironwood, an understory tree that retains its leaves through winter. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjcPKFCzUTpAUw3MUUnFZeRj0mDN_tuYZZCGN16n8b0AChaMS_Di2ocbXgHC5ujPyogYv2jjgYOD4VAGPjnEJirDl1CwosMyg16OAqr5XlUB_4Th0wmz7lap0wVXnSjFPvLASPKYLfAoUTEjMcftY3_IQu8LZblIP1ewqBk4ZzApMKR2OQAwgOvHM/s909/Ironwood%20in%20snowy%20understory.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Ironwood trees with brown leaves in a snowy understory." border="0" data-original-height="605" data-original-width="909" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjcPKFCzUTpAUw3MUUnFZeRj0mDN_tuYZZCGN16n8b0AChaMS_Di2ocbXgHC5ujPyogYv2jjgYOD4VAGPjnEJirDl1CwosMyg16OAqr5XlUB_4Th0wmz7lap0wVXnSjFPvLASPKYLfAoUTEjMcftY3_IQu8LZblIP1ewqBk4ZzApMKR2OQAwgOvHM/w400-h266/Ironwood%20in%20snowy%20understory.JPG" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #6: Remember MAD Cap Buck Horse.</h4><p>Bud arrangement -- alternate, opposite, subopposite or whorled -- can quickly narrow choices for identification. One way to remember which species have an opposite arrangement is the mnemonic MAD Cap Buck Horse:</p><p>M Maples (<i>Acer</i>)</p><p>A Ash (<i>Fraxinus</i>)</p><p>D Dogwoods (<i>Cornus</i>, except for alternate-leaved dogwood, <i>C. alternifolia</i>)</p><p>Cap Plants that are or were in the family Caprifoliaceae, including honeysuckles (<i>Lonicera</i>), wolfberry or snowberry (<i>Symphoricarpos</i>), elderberry (<i>Sambucus</i>) and viburnums (<i>Viburnum</i>). </p><p>Buck Horse Ohio Buckeye (<i>Aesculus glabra</i>) and Horse Chestnut (<i>Aesculus hippocastanum</i>)</p><p><br /></p><p>Although this mnemonic is helpful, it doesn't include all trees and shrubs with opposite buds. For example, Wahoo and Burning Bush, genus <i>Euonymus</i>, also have opposite buds. So does Bladdernut, <i>Staphylea trifolia</i>, an understory shrub.</p><p>Most remaining species have alternate buds. Common Buckthorn, <i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>, is unusual in having subopposite buds. Catalpa, another unusual species, has whorled buds. </p><p><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #7: Look at the pith.</h4><p>The pith is the center of a branchlet or twig. The appearance of the pith -- hollow or solid, color, texture -- can help confirm the identity of a tree or shrub. For example, honeysuckle shrubs (<i>Lonicera</i>, left photo below) have hollow piths, and Red Elderberry (<i>Sambucus racemosa</i>, right photo below) has a soft, yellow pith.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2V-ti9WroUJI70tqYiC3gqDpI9tHAeaxdgXedn-r_Gu-nZzTEh7aIsOW80i5dozEYTUSbAy1NYNwfzouQhvFdC-lAgX8bmQaudWVF0lwdPo6Aha7S2D7WS2y8Pc2WrpX2pepTPW7L9Zcc2X1dvqgsloc5rqKAYM97aH_NF2mUREK6oswTw7CCx8A/s1107/Pith.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Two photos showing the cut twigs of honeysuckle and red elderberry." border="0" data-original-height="516" data-original-width="1107" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2V-ti9WroUJI70tqYiC3gqDpI9tHAeaxdgXedn-r_Gu-nZzTEh7aIsOW80i5dozEYTUSbAy1NYNwfzouQhvFdC-lAgX8bmQaudWVF0lwdPo6Aha7S2D7WS2y8Pc2WrpX2pepTPW7L9Zcc2X1dvqgsloc5rqKAYM97aH_NF2mUREK6oswTw7CCx8A/w320-h149/Pith.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Tip #8: Try these guides.</h4><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.uwsp.edu/cnr-ap/leaf/Pages/default.aspx">The
LEAF Program</a> from UW-Stevens Point is a K-12 forestry education initiative
that offers many online resources. Under Curriculum & Resources, choose
LEAF Tree Identification Tools. The LEAF Winter Tree ID Key is available there
as a downloadable PDF. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="https://www.ccfpd.org/Portals/0/Assets/PDF/WinterTreeIDpocketguide.pdf">Pocket
Reference for Winter Tree Identification</a>. Champaign County Forest
Preserves, Mahomet, IL.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Fruit and Twig Key to Trees and Shrubs, by William M. Harlow, PhD. Reprint edition, 1959. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-486-20511-8. </p><br /><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-3157114716663528692022-12-05T12:41:00.006-06:002022-12-10T10:53:12.258-06:00Progress in Buckthorn Management<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnXgZuFoWJChazDu6vToeNhSm7MoZETWkxzjnsiV-cXioUcfQ2nw2bmwDPjl8rxigIAoZz4-bUxAoBX-Hym8oG2Diy3BuQp2cltCbUT-A1eJ2RFQZySUrg-G2ip7aPPq-nI59SaP3g9RaR9p2rrxF41UOeG3Y6OZuDNCjE6HstDNvp8z04qJ_YArg/s1028/Common%20buckthorn%20seedlings.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="577" data-original-width="1028" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnXgZuFoWJChazDu6vToeNhSm7MoZETWkxzjnsiV-cXioUcfQ2nw2bmwDPjl8rxigIAoZz4-bUxAoBX-Hym8oG2Diy3BuQp2cltCbUT-A1eJ2RFQZySUrg-G2ip7aPPq-nI59SaP3g9RaR9p2rrxF41UOeG3Y6OZuDNCjE6HstDNvp8z04qJ_YArg/w640-h360/Common%20buckthorn%20seedlings.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Seedlings of Common Buckthorn rise from the seedbank after an area is cleared of larger plants. Suppressing reinvasion <br />is a major challenge of Buckthorn management. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Researchers at the University of
Minnesota rank Buckthorn high on their list of problem invaders. They’ve been
studying Common Buckthorn, <i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>, and Glossy Buckthorn, <i>Frangula
alnus</i>, for years, and last summer they shared some of their findings.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Their white paper, <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/sites/mitppc.umn.edu/files/2022-08/CFANS-Buckthorn-White-Paper-June-2022.pdf"><b>Managing
Invasive Buckthorn</b></a>, focuses on two areas of
research: goat browsing to manage Buckthorn growth and native plant cover to
suppress reinvasion. Here are highlights from their work. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Goat Browsing Has Potential –
and Pitfalls<o:p></o:p></b></p><p class="MsoNormal">On steep hillsides or other inaccessible
places, goats are an alternative for removing buckthorn. Their browsing and
trampling can reduce Buckhorn abundance and open the canopy, allowing more
light to reach other plants. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Goats are most effective on small Buckthorn
within the animals’ reach. To limit damage to other plants, fall is the best
time to release the animals, but that’s also when they’re most at risk of
acquiring meningeal worms. These brain parasites can infest snails and slugs
that the goats also consume while browsing. Co-grazing ducks and geese with goats can lessen the risk, as waterfowl
can eat infested snails and reduce their numbers but not get sick. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Goats don’t eat just Buckthorn;
they’ll eat other plants, too, including desirable ones. Some plants may
rebound the following year, but they’ll be competing with Buckthorn that also resurges
under the newly opened canopy. As explained in the next section, that’s why establishing
cover is important after Buckthorn is removed, whether by goats or other means.
A good way to suppress Buckthorn’s return, the researchers found, is to increase competition. <o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVBxZvtS8LryPghq8kbQfodMxNGoxdMZ97KBEJbBZRo9fzOGpxFmSsd1FIp5pdWQpVG5qERsMOhkJ6MC1Yum6kYWNY7CGSKkbtsIXu9HXDCUM4eZUQKHl4e_r9UCwjKVeD-w0Po64yRTD-VkV44sG-lgvJ3aUUs7UphlqZSsKXGVsp5y7I6t_Jn0/s948/Buckthorn%20removed%20by%20forestry%20mowing.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="588" data-original-width="948" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVBxZvtS8LryPghq8kbQfodMxNGoxdMZ97KBEJbBZRo9fzOGpxFmSsd1FIp5pdWQpVG5qERsMOhkJ6MC1Yum6kYWNY7CGSKkbtsIXu9HXDCUM4eZUQKHl4e_r9UCwjKVeD-w0Po64yRTD-VkV44sG-lgvJ3aUUs7UphlqZSsKXGVsp5y7I6t_Jn0/w400-h248/Buckthorn%20removed%20by%20forestry%20mowing.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Part of this Buckthorn thicket was cleared with a forestry mower. Just a few </div><div style="text-align: left;">years later, it has regrown to become as dense as the unmowed portion.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Native Cover Suppresses
Reinvasion and Rebuilds Communities<o:p></o:p></b></p><p class="MsoNormal">Buckthorn management doesn’t end
when the plants are cleared from an area. Reinvasion and a return to dominance
are common, because Buckthorn can regrow from the seed bank or from cut stumps
that weren’t treated with herbicide. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Fortunately, the researchers
discovered a way to suppress reinvasion. They experimented with dense plantings or
seedings of trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs and found that if light
availability under plant cover drops below 3-4%, Buckthorn regrowth is limited. In closed forests with less light, planted trees and shrubs
worked best to establish that cover. In more open areas, such as oak woods,
both planted stock and seeded grasses and wildflowers were effective. The
scientists are now experimenting with less dense planting and seeding. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Even after plant cover is introduced, it is important to monitor a site for germinating or sprouting Buckthorn. As the native planting matures and casts more
shade, removing Buckthorn should become easier as fewer plants survive. It’s a
years-long effort, but with the right combination of techniques, Buckthorn
should recede as the native plant community returns. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>More Resources</b></p><p class="MsoNormal">For help identifying Buckthorn in
winter, <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/search?q=Buckthorn"><b>see this
updated post</b></a> from January 2021 or download this <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1y52Z8SfccFW8aBefMDA_fuX8jGNh5Dry/view?usp=share_link"><b>free,
two-page guide</b></a>. Additional Buckthorn information
is available from the <b><a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/woody/buckthorn/index.html">Minnesota
Department of Natural Resources</a> </b>and the <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/commonbuckthorn"><b>Minnesota
Department of Agriculture</b></a>. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Reference</b></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal">Bernhardt, C., et al. 2022. Managing Invasive Buckthorn.
University of Minnesota College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource
Sciences and the Minnesota Invasive Terrestrial Plants and Pests Center. <b> <a href="https://mitppc.umn.edu/sites/mitppc.umn.edu/files/2022-08/CFANS-Buckthorn-White-Paper-June-2022.pdf">CFANS-Buckthorn-White-Paper-June-2022.pdf
(umn.edu)</a></b><span class="MsoHyperlink"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-37472251461146339352022-11-11T11:10:00.004-06:002022-11-26T09:16:00.534-06:00Oriental Bittersweet in Winter<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6_hIMn2ET0FPapS2moZ-4vdJUatFmZkOPXaEpNrdaY1-Dgv9WVRXp_VjaFmitOKsakfyCCBys9HNpatG9Cqeqjr7KuZ-jMNhritydK-zLC4wjj1kVypAhZ_liw2X27t8499qKV14DIxQ6I5gDHDVQCHWD7dSe8jZsCJ2qTOHRWPBdeQwuKkP8e7c/s710/Oriental%20bittersweet%20in%20winter.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Oriental bittersweet fruits on bare winter vines twining around a shrubby host." border="0" data-original-height="405" data-original-width="710" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6_hIMn2ET0FPapS2moZ-4vdJUatFmZkOPXaEpNrdaY1-Dgv9WVRXp_VjaFmitOKsakfyCCBys9HNpatG9Cqeqjr7KuZ-jMNhritydK-zLC4wjj1kVypAhZ_liw2X27t8499qKV14DIxQ6I5gDHDVQCHWD7dSe8jZsCJ2qTOHRWPBdeQwuKkP8e7c/w640-h366/Oriental%20bittersweet%20in%20winter.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">The yellow capsules and scarlet arils of Oriental Bittersweet stand out in winter.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p>Oriental, Asian or Asiatic Bittersweet (<i>Celastrus orbiculatus</i>) is an introduced vine that can girdle or smother its hosts. Efforts to remove this invasive plant are complicated by its similarity to native American Bittersweet (<i>C. scandens</i>).</p><p>Fortunately, mature female vines of each species are noticeably different, especially in fall and winter. <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/search?q=Oriental+bittersweet">Open this updated post from January 2021</a> to learn how to tell them apart. <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/13btdPgaFOp-9bfA3g849bKrFwegwGW6r/view?usp=share_link">A two-page ID guide </a>is free to download. </p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899819.221275504579083 -129.84214980000002 74.237830495420923 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-77064988461954464132022-10-27T12:41:00.003-05:002022-11-26T09:16:25.976-06:00What is Tar Spot?<p> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirHryfDGvOtZJ5QC7xd-te-G9_ObXNc37XSmNaG5BGjCJOzYGeEGFeuIpXmNCrLmuUEatvELaUQpmRJHEZ6cI5T2MBYInjVznLFaFzvvGEKgr7sAab4EKojNNCxJ454m-J_a_BtfReGrA-265HM8180x4t0pbm8gd-zpM0i15HwUZyvSB3H7nzyEY/s1064/Tar%20spot%20Rhytisma%20on%20Silver%20Maple.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img alt="Silver maple leaves fallen on grass. The leaves have several large, dark spots on the upper surface of the blades." border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="1064" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirHryfDGvOtZJ5QC7xd-te-G9_ObXNc37XSmNaG5BGjCJOzYGeEGFeuIpXmNCrLmuUEatvELaUQpmRJHEZ6cI5T2MBYInjVznLFaFzvvGEKgr7sAab4EKojNNCxJ454m-J_a_BtfReGrA-265HM8180x4t0pbm8gd-zpM0i15HwUZyvSB3H7nzyEY/w640-h360/Tar%20spot%20Rhytisma%20on%20Silver%20Maple.JPG" width="640" /></a><br /><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">The black scabs on these Silver Maple leaves are signs of tar spot,
a common fungal disease that also affects Norway, Red and other maples as well as willows, holly and
sycamores. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The spots, called stromata, are the overwintering form of
the fungus. When infected leaves fall, they often land with their upper surfaces,
and so the stromata, facing up. That puts them in a good position to release wind-borne
or rain-splashed spores next spring. The freed spores then infect new
leaves, eventually producing light green to yellow spots on the blades that
enlarge as the season progresses. The spots turn dark and tarry-looking in late
summer and early fall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Although it looks bad, tar spot is rarely a serious disease.
It can cause early leaf drop, but otherwise it's just unsightly. Raking and destroying
infected leaves can prevent reinfection in spring. In most cases, fungicides are not
recommended. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Inside a Stroma</b></p><p class="MsoNormal">If you slice through a stroma in spring and examine it with a microscope, you'll find its lower surface covered with tiny, bowl-shaped structures called apothecia. Inside each apothecium are hundreds of sacs called asci ("as-eye" or "ask-eye," singular ascus). Each ascus contains eight needle-shaped spores that are released through cracks in the overlying stroma. </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2PdH9vV2bIYVD4Q5Ig1IDBK-jtK8tilKE_SiuG-QMxU03ZepkAZNZK4Iw_v-PZgOiUDHqQw17hShJGLcH2D3oFkUEGpsRkIZqVMGB7_ofdZF4iOsxjoE8zfqujCtz4G4OVakKa2X0nZaa9_hOljtjFQCPDQ3-kuvTgRuhRznbfwylJnEdhHE8E2Y/s3558/Rhytisma%20acerinum%20apothecium%20and%20ascospores.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1329" data-original-width="3558" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2PdH9vV2bIYVD4Q5Ig1IDBK-jtK8tilKE_SiuG-QMxU03ZepkAZNZK4Iw_v-PZgOiUDHqQw17hShJGLcH2D3oFkUEGpsRkIZqVMGB7_ofdZF4iOsxjoE8zfqujCtz4G4OVakKa2X0nZaa9_hOljtjFQCPDQ3-kuvTgRuhRznbfwylJnEdhHE8E2Y/w640-h240/Rhytisma%20acerinum%20apothecium%20and%20ascospores.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Left: An apothecium of <i>Rhytisma acerinum</i> with the dark, overlying stroma ruptured. A clear layer of asci covers the bottom of the apothecium. Right: A closeup of the asci with emerging needle-like spores. Both photos by Bruce Watt, University of Maine, Bugwood.org. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Because tar spot fungi need living tissue to survive, spores are not released in fall. Instead, they are released in spring, when leaves are emerging from their buds. Blown by wind or launched by splashes of water, many of the spores won't land on a susceptible host. With a good measure of luck, some will, and the life cycle begins again. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>The "Womb" Fungi</b></p><p class="MsoNormal">Tar spot fungi are in the genus <i>Rhytisma. </i>Three species typically infect maples: native <i>R. americanum</i> and <i>R. punctatum</i> and introduced <i>R. acerinum</i>.</p><p class="MsoNormal">All three species belong to a large group of fungi called Ascomycetes, or sac fungi. The apothecia of sac fungi typically are open at the top, but those of <i>Rhytisma</i> are covered by a layer of fungal tissue in the stromata. </p><p class="MsoNormal">Because the protected apothecia resemble wombs, they're also called hysterothecia, from the Greek root words "hystero," meaning uterus or womb, and "theca," meaning case or cup.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>References</b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://treediseases.cfans.umn.edu/tarspots">Leaf
Diseases of Hardwoods: Tar Spots</a>. Dr. Robert Blanchette, College of Food,
Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Minnesota. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/tar-spot/">Tar
Spot of Trees and Shrubs.</a> Brian Hudelson, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Plant Pathology. Last Revised 12/18/2018. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><a href="http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/oct2007.html">Rhytisma acerinum<span style="font-style: normal;"> and </span>Rhytisma punctatum<span style="font-style: normal;">, two causes of Tar Spot of maple</span></a></i>. Heather
Hallen Adams and Tom Volk, University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse. Fungus of the
Month, October 2007. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-25058491801540120612022-10-12T21:27:00.014-05:002022-11-26T09:17:02.092-06:00Are Psyllids the Solution to Invasive Knotweeds?<p></p><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;">Help is on the horizon to manage these aggressive plants.</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><i>Fallopia japonica</i> (Houtt.) Ronse Decr., Japanese Knotweed<br /><i>Fallopia sachalinensis</i> (F.
Schmidt) Ronse Decr., Giant Knotweed<br /><i>Fallopia</i> x <i>bohemica </i>(Chrtek
& Chrtková) J.P. Bailey, Bohemian Knotweed</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br /></div><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSFJV8TZ14Dfp8GYZisxOiK0P_uXTzN05jC4dILs3eLrQV2HYhc_OF6XPyriylDxVfgnw35b9hegrE97HjJ4W-vujeJmpyqtFn-whizLd7jN9XcoVtGBItnhEC1_Qyunq9pGPMVr86eB33GLG2L0rA2xZabNb2mYeZUl23zJ53y1WT5XdrzqvI0IE/s960/Japanese%20knotweed.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A stand of Japanese Knotweed, Fallopia japonica, with bare remains of inflorescences." border="0" data-original-height="558" data-original-width="960" height="372" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSFJV8TZ14Dfp8GYZisxOiK0P_uXTzN05jC4dILs3eLrQV2HYhc_OF6XPyriylDxVfgnw35b9hegrE97HjJ4W-vujeJmpyqtFn-whizLd7jN9XcoVtGBItnhEC1_Qyunq9pGPMVr86eB33GLG2L0rA2xZabNb2mYeZUl23zJ53y1WT5XdrzqvI0IE/w640-h372/Japanese%20knotweed.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">A stand of Japanese Knotweed in October. Although these plants are green, others are starting to yellow. The spiky growths are inflorescences that have shed their flowers and fruits.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">In Minnesota and around the world, invasive knotweeds are
some of the most difficult plants to manage.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Aided by vigorous rhizomes that can extend several meters
from a parent plant (1, 2), Japanese Knotweed, Giant Knotweed and their hybrid,
Bohemian Knotweed, can displace native plants, change soil chemistry, alter microbe
and invertebrate assemblages, and enhance soil erosion, especially on
riverbanks (3, 4, 5). In addition, they are potentially allelopathic, meaning
they can release compounds from living or decaying tissues that inhibit the
growth of some plants (6, 7). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Knotweeds are spreading in North America and elsewhere, and
as they do, so is the realization that controlling them is no easy task. (<a href="https://www.eddmaps.org/">See EDDMapS</a> for their distributions in
North America; use the genus <i>Reynoutria</i>, a synonym.) Although a variety
of chemical and mechanical control methods can be effective, all require years
of repeated efforts and monitoring for renewed growth (8). Mechanical methods –
digging and cutting – also demand meticulous attention, because fragments of rhizomes
or stems left behind can regenerate the plants (9). <o:p></o:p></p><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKtYABT961UWd64fbU0EgNapJgWclLtzF9DplhTBZtki33ZUvUdCxVFqgfiNs2oL5-4yFKBTKJMu2aXZc7vSRDVYDCzSfIYLaZrmPKVMtjFII0qtz2rJ_XLPl7q3mZ5PPKvxO6rutyUpNZ1B77mkqQmXg4DxPE6ECzColxBpBA7DAo21kFbc6RZvA/s954/Large%20stand%20of%20knotweed.JPG" style="clear: left; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><img alt="A large stand of Knotweed, Fallopia species, at the edge of a property. The plants extend into an adjacent paved trail." border="0" data-original-height="532" data-original-width="954" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKtYABT961UWd64fbU0EgNapJgWclLtzF9DplhTBZtki33ZUvUdCxVFqgfiNs2oL5-4yFKBTKJMu2aXZc7vSRDVYDCzSfIYLaZrmPKVMtjFII0qtz2rJ_XLPl7q3mZ5PPKvxO6rutyUpNZ1B77mkqQmXg4DxPE6ECzColxBpBA7DAo21kFbc6RZvA/w640-h356/Large%20stand%20of%20knotweed.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">This large stand of Knotweed covers about 2,000 square feet along a property edge. The property is adjacent to a lake, offering the riparian habitat where knotweeds thrive and spread. <br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Biocontrol – the use of a plant’s natural enemies – now offers
some hope for an efficient alternative. Small, sap-sucking insects called Knotweed
Psyllids, <i>Aphalara itadori</i>, have been collected from Japan, part of
knotweeds’ native range. After years of study to determine that the insects
would effectively target only knotweeds, scientists released the psyllids into
several field locations in North America. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">According to the North American Invasive Species Management
Association (NAISMA, 10), one race of the psyllids, called the Kyushu line, was
released on Japanese and Bohemian Knotweed populations in several states in
2020 and 2021. (Minnesota was not one of them.) Another race, called the
Hokkaido line, was released on Giant Knotweed populations in 2021. The nymphs
and adults feed on knotweed stems and leaves, removing sap from the plants and
causing the leaves to curl. The insects leave behind lerp, a flaky or stringy crystallized
form of honeydew, a sugary solution they excrete. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">When winter arrives, the adult psyllids take shelter and
enter diapause, a time of suspended activity. Because the insects are native to
a similar climate in Japan, it is hoped the adults will survive winters here
and resume activity in spring, as they do in their original range. However,
according to NAISMA, no sustained populations have been confirmed. Additional
races or populations are being studied for future release. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Although psyllids are not yet a sure solution to knotweed
invasions, the research is promising. It also highlights the importance of
accurate plant identification, because different races of psyllids are
effective on different knotweeds. The Kyushu race is more effective on Japanese
and Bohemian Knotweed, whereas the Hokkaido race is better for Giant Knotweed.
A third race, called the Murakami line, is being studied for release on Bohemian
knotweed in Canada. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In Minnesota, Japanese, Giant and Bohemian Knotweed are on
the state Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants-insects/minnesota-noxious-weed-list">noxious
weed list</a>. They are classified as “prohibited-control,” meaning all
propagating parts, including seeds and vegetative parts, must be prevented from
spreading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In practice, that means treating
at least the above-ground growth before the stems flower in late summer, and if
the stems are cut, collecting and disposing of the cuttings so they don’t
escape and establish knotweed stands elsewhere. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In other words, it’s a lot of work, especially in large
patches. With some additional research and field tests, psyllids may someday make
that work easier. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Resources for Knotweed Identification and Management</b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Grevstad, F.S., J.E. Andreas, R.S.
Bourchier, and R. Shaw. 2022. Knotweeds (<i>Fallopia</i> spp.): History and
Ecology in North America. In: R.L. Winston, Ed. Biological Control of Weeds in
North America. North American Invasive Species Management Association,
Milwaukee, WI. NAISMA-BCW-2022-19-KNOTWEEDS-P. [Accessed online at <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/files/23198.pdf">23198.pdf
(bugwoodcloud.org)</a>]<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Dusz M-A, Martin F-M, Dommanget F, Petit A,
Dechaume-Moncharmont C, Evette A. Review of Existing Knowledge and Practices of
Tarping for the Control of Invasive Knotweeds. Plants. 2021; 10(10):2152. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102152">https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102152</a>.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Minnesota Department of Natural
Resources. <a href="https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/herbaceous/knotweeds.html">Non-native
knotweeds: Japanese, Bohemian, and Giant knotweed</a>. Website accessed October
10, 2022.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Mary H. Meyer, University of
Minnesota Extension Service. <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-news/japanese-knotweed">Japanese
knotweed, a major noxious weed.</a> October 6, 2020.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Angela Gupta, Amy Rager and Megan
M. Weber, University of Minnesota Extension Service. <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/identify-invasive-species/japanese-knotweed">Japanese
knotweed</a>. Reviewed in 2019.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Minnesota Department of
Agriculture. <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/mura/mipn/assets/File/Knotweed%20Brochure%205_14_18%20WEB.pdf">Knotweeds</a>.
(Brochure.) No date.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Minnesota Department of
Agriculture. <a href="https://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/knotweed">Japanese
Knotweed</a>. Website accessed October 10, 2022.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Minnesota Department of
Transportation. <a href="https://www.dot.state.mn.us/roadsides/vegetation/pdf/noxiousweeds.pdf">Minnesota
Noxious Weeds</a>. February 5, 2020.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Linda M. Wilson. British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range. <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/invasive-species/publications/key_to_identification_of_invasive_knotweeds_in_british_columbia.pdf">Key to Identification of Invasive Knotweeds in British Columbia</a><div><br /><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><b>References</b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">1) Grevstad, F.S., J.E. Andreas, R.S.
Bourchier, and R. Shaw. 2022. Knotweeds (<i>Fallopia</i> spp.): History and
Ecology in North America. In: R.L. Winston, Ed. Biological Control of Weeds in
North America. North American Invasive Species Management Association,
Milwaukee, WI. NAISMA-BCW-2022-19-KNOTWEEDS-P. [Accessed online at <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/files/23198.pdf">23198.pdf
(bugwoodcloud.org)</a>]<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">2) Fennell M, Wade M, Bacon KL. 2018. Japanese
knotweed (<i>Fallopia japonica</i>): an analysis of capacity to cause
structural damage (compared to other plants) and typical rhizome
extension. PeerJ 6:e5246 <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5246">https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5246</a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">3) Lavoie, C. 2017. The impact of invasive knotweed species (<i>Reynoutria</i>
spp.) on the environment: review and research perspectives. Biological
Invasions 19: 2319-2337.<b><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">4) Matte, R., Boivin, M., and Lavoie, C. 2021. Japanese
knotweed increases soil erosion on riverbanks. River Research and Applications
38 (3): 561-572. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3918">10.1002.rra.3918</a><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: #212121; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5) Colleran, B., Lacy, S.N., and
Retamal, M.R. 2020. Invasive Japanese knotweed (<i>Reynoutria japonica</i>
Houtt.) and related knotweeds as catalysis for streambank erosion. River
Research and Applications 36 (9): 1962-1969. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3725">10.1002/rra.3725.</a> </span><span face=""Segoe UI",sans-serif" style="color: #212121;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;">6) Kato-Noguchi, H. Allelopathy of Knotweeds as Invasive Plants.
Plants 2022, 11, 3. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11010003" target="_blank"><span style="color: #205493; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">10.3390/plants11010003</span></a></span><span class="identifier"><span style="color: #212121; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">. </span></span><span class="identifier"><span face=""Segoe UI",sans-serif" style="color: #212121;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">7) Drazan, D., Smith, A.G., Anderson, N.O., Becker, R., and Clark,
M. 2021. History of knotweed (Fallopia spp.) invasiveness. Weed
Science 69(6): 617-623. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2021.62">10.1017/wsc.2021.62</a>.
<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">8) Grevstad, F.S., J.E. Andreas, R.S. Bourchier, R. Shaw, R.L.
Winston, and C.B. Randall. 2018. Biology and Biological Control of Knotweeds.
USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Assessment and Applied Sciences Team,
Morgantown, West Virginia. FHTET-2017-03. [Accessed online at <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/pdf/Biology_&_Biological_Control_Series/FHTET-2017-03_Biological_Control_of_Knotweeds_508.pdf">https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/pdf/Biology_&_Biological_Control_Series/FHTET-2017-03_Biological_Control_of_Knotweeds_508.pdf</a>.]
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">9) Lawson JW, Fennell M, Smith MW, Bacon KL. 2021. Regeneration
and growth in crowns and rhizome fragments of Japanese knotweed (Reynoutria
japonica) and desiccation as a potential control strategy. PeerJ 9:e11783 <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11783">https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11783</a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">10) USDA. Field Release of the Knotweed Psyllid Aphalara itadori
(Hemiptera: Psyllidae) for Classical Biological Control of Japanese, Giant, and
Bohemian Knotweeds, Fallopia japonica, F. sachalinensis, and F. x bohemica
(Polygonaceae), in the Contiguous United States. Environmental Assessment,
January 2020. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">11) Grevstad, F.S., J.E. Andreas, R.S.
Bourchier, and R. Shaw. 2022. Knotweeds (<i>Fallopia</i> spp.): History and
Ecology in North America. In: R.L. Winston, Ed. Biological Control of Weeds in
North America. North American Invasive Species Management Association,
Milwaukee, WI. NAISMA-BCW-2022-19-KNOTWEEDS-P. [Accessed online at <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/files/23198.pdf">23198.pdf
(bugwoodcloud.org)</a>]</p></div></div><br />Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-9480655692172005102022-09-19T11:46:00.010-05:002022-11-26T09:17:29.842-06:00Plant Profile: Ghost Plant, Monotropa uniflora<p> This forest native has no chloroplasts and can't photosynthesize. How does it survive? By cheating.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuvnF9omerNAKsqtxH5RIU1NM1EluhAqE6LWHwvK6w7vO1qwka2h12-R-Ug3HMbq9LPfdj4PYCtzTXTXC73Ftqsy1C07PYZKsoCZq7UmuVs9Py3nNWe_jlzMx0ej81B5i4Uy4RU0ejEivDiX__-jg8XPYR22K2fmlis3GWu0ck9VfIhtsEih23Pd0/s1000/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A clump of Ghost Plant soon after emerging, with several nodding, white stems." border="0" data-original-height="631" data-original-width="1000" height="404" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuvnF9omerNAKsqtxH5RIU1NM1EluhAqE6LWHwvK6w7vO1qwka2h12-R-Ug3HMbq9LPfdj4PYCtzTXTXC73Ftqsy1C07PYZKsoCZq7UmuVs9Py3nNWe_jlzMx0ej81B5i4Uy4RU0ejEivDiX__-jg8XPYR22K2fmlis3GWu0ck9VfIhtsEih23Pd0/w640-h404/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Ghost Plant, <i>Monotropa uniflora</i> L.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p><br /></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Ghost Plant, also called Wax Plant, is well named. It looks like something fashioned, if not out of ether, then out
of a chunk of paraffin and an active imagination.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Resembling a fungus more than a
flowering plant, its pale, waxy stems and scaly leaves have no chloroplasts. They
were lost somewhere along the plant’s evolutionary pathway, yet it manages to
survive without being able to make sugars by photosynthesis. At first Ghost
Plant was thought to be saprophytic, absorbing nutrients from decaying
organic matter in its surroundings. That’s what fungi do, and it made sense
that this plant, so similar in appearance, would do the same.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0btDr_vgcqgE580-dw82918dlaSUKIjm_7FDaQGya-zJMY3ofGbBmO9Ax8lm8-tLMrJJ6ZGUR6TKq0c21OByP_FawbS7tFkW1qOJRmLUoZ2Z6UESL0TI0lkHTSII_9GL8mUgmS7njYp2HY4Nd4AVHcVYt-MWf3lAG_WM6Ki5JmX8pdve4Q0lHfAA/s630/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora%20flowers.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="630" data-original-width="445" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0btDr_vgcqgE580-dw82918dlaSUKIjm_7FDaQGya-zJMY3ofGbBmO9Ax8lm8-tLMrJJ6ZGUR6TKq0c21OByP_FawbS7tFkW1qOJRmLUoZ2Z6UESL0TI0lkHTSII_9GL8mUgmS7njYp2HY4Nd4AVHcVYt-MWf3lAG_WM6Ki5JmX8pdve4Q0lHfAA/s320/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora%20flowers.JPG" width="226" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Each stem bears a nodding flower. </td></tr></tbody></table><h4 style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;">From Partner to Parasite</h4><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Scientists then found that its
roots, like those of most plants, don’t work alone. They are covered with and
invaded by fungi, beneficial partners that reach farther into the soil to
collect and transport nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, back to
the plant.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">These associations between fungi
and roots, called mycorrhizae (MY-co-RY-zee, literally “fungus roots”),
typically benefit both partners. The plant receives nutrients gathered by the
fungus, and the fungus receives photosynthate made by the plant. It’s a
textbook example of mutualism, a type of symbiosis in which both organisms gain something from their relationship.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Ancestors of Ghost Plant might have
started out that way, with both the plant and the fungus sharing something with the other. Somewhere along the line, though, the relationship changed. When Ghost Plant lost its chloroplasts, it
could no longer give photosynthate to its fungal partner. The two-way
relationship became one-way, and Ghost Plant behaved more like a parasite.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">As a result, some of those fungal
partners probably dropped off. With nothing to feed them, the fungi don't benefit from the relationship, and their association with Ghost Plant likely dwindled from a diverse many
to a select few that either best met the plant’s needs or that failed to detect
the ruse and avoid becoming hosts (1).</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;">Tapping the Connection</h4><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Ghost Plant’s mycorrhizae are now associated only
with fungi in the genus <i>Russula</i>, a group of mushroom-forming decomposers
found all over the world (2). <i>Russula</i> also forms mycorrhizae
with other plants -- g<i>reen</i> plants, plants that photosynthesize and send
sugars to the fungus and then to Ghost Plant, if it’s joined to the same
network. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Like tapping into a phone conversation, Ghost Plant takes some of what’s exchanged – in this case, sugars
and nutrients – to support itself, without giving anything in return. It’s an
adaptation that helps the plant survive in the deep shade of forest interiors. No need
to grow tall or early or to develop leaves that can tolerate shade. Just plug into the web of connections between plants and fungi and take what’s needed.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p>T</o:p>he technical term for this is myco-heterotrophy, “myco” meaning fungus and “heterotroph” referring to organisms that feed on
others. Ghost Plant is one of only 400 or so plants around the world that are fully
myco-heterotrophic, meaning they spend their entire lives feeding on others through
mycorrhizal connections (1).</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Some scientists simply call the
plant a parasite, either on the fungus or on the green plants connected to it.
Others, citing the plant’s pickpocket habit, choose a more colorful term:
Cheater.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<h4 style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><b>Description and Range</b></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Ghost Plant emerges and flowers in
late summer. Each hooked stems bears a single flower at its tip. After flowering,
the stems straighten and develop capsules full of tiny seeds. For more help
with identification, see the <a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/indian-pipe">Minnesota
Wildflowers page</a> for this species. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheVbVFuZvOVdw5pwDbOT5ijfmeBlf3kmTIRFMRbHZB4LyfGtI8L3Feo5WhHCUWGETO13YHE7HcDNCwzi8iV9xhr-OfueVgfwyaWQz8hqaXzmKnnHexU5KzEWcbSkoYiPgM4Gw0dzhc3qbIG7GR4_JGOMGGJs8gb5b1McHJEdl3gvAuHe7AjAWBHXg/s3031/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora%20mature%20stems%20and%20capsules.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1308" data-original-width="3031" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheVbVFuZvOVdw5pwDbOT5ijfmeBlf3kmTIRFMRbHZB4LyfGtI8L3Feo5WhHCUWGETO13YHE7HcDNCwzi8iV9xhr-OfueVgfwyaWQz8hqaXzmKnnHexU5KzEWcbSkoYiPgM4Gw0dzhc3qbIG7GR4_JGOMGGJs8gb5b1McHJEdl3gvAuHe7AjAWBHXg/w640-h277/Ghost%20Plant%20Monotropa%20uniflora%20mature%20stems%20and%20capsules.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">After flowering, the stems straighten and the flowers later develop capsules (right) with many seeds.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">In Minnesota, Ghost Plant is
mostly a northern species, but it’s also found in scattered counties in the
south. It also grows in most of Wisconsin and generally in forests throughout
the U.S. and Canada. According to <a href="https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.133249/Monotropa_uniflora#:~:text=NatureServe%20Global%20Conservation%20Status%20Factors&text=Monotropa%20uniflora%20is%20a%20wide,in%20boreal%20and%20temperate%20forests.">Nature
Serve Explorer</a> and the <a href="https://www.gbif.org/species/2888353">Global
Biodiversity Information Facility</a>, Ghost Plant is also found in Central America,
South America, Europe and Asia.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><b>Cited References</b><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">1) Merckx, V., Bidartondo, M.I., Hynson, N.A. 2009.
Myco-heterotrophy: when fungi host plants. Annals of Botany 104 (7): 1255-1261.
<span style="background: white; color: #212121;">doi: </span><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faob%2Fmcp235" target="_blank"><span style="background: white; color: #376faa; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10.1093/aob/mcp235</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal">2) Massicotte, H.B., Melville, L.H., and Peterson, R.L. 2005.
Structural features of mycorrhizal associations in two members of the
Monotropoideae, <i>Monotropa uniflora</i> and <i>Pterospora andromedea.</i>
Mycorrhiza 15: 101-110. <span class="id-label"><span style="background: white; color: #212121;">DOI: </span></span><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-004-0305-6" target="_blank"><span style="background: white; color: #0071bc; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10.1007/s00572-004-0305-6</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p><b>Additional References</b></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Dance, A. 2017. Inner workings: Special relationship between
fungi and plants may have spurred changes to ancient climate. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences USA 114(46): 12089-12091. Accessed online on
9/12/22 at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5699097/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5699097/</a>.
<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;">Van der Heijden, M.G.A., Martin,
F.M., Selosse, M.-A., Sanders, I.R. 2015. Mycorrhizal ecology and evolution:
the past the present, and the future. New Phytologist Foundation 205 (4):
1406-1423. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13288"><span style="background: white; color: #005274; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13288</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></p><b></b><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-75700875131197311002022-08-29T08:51:00.010-05:002022-11-26T09:17:53.066-06:00Plant Profile: Wild CucumberThis native vine is aggressive but not invasive in North America. The story is different overseas.<br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqmFZyGsvMTvmSsVCl1p1TWfJCbvvUEkFx7b5v3fSAvR1DyahrF5nBX70pi5C0NfsiBfk9QR-YHAuwzPj5O63hH0g8Z13Auaubjsuq2k9vJ-UdviWzzZPnJ1IjKHYOzOgLb7jFmvVrsFNnueovy8byflgegU2_-aqJrLtibjtY7vQjkizFet6fO60/s1349/Echinocystis%20lobata%20vine.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A wild cucumber vine with upright clusters of white flowers." border="0" data-original-height="615" data-original-width="1349" height="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqmFZyGsvMTvmSsVCl1p1TWfJCbvvUEkFx7b5v3fSAvR1DyahrF5nBX70pi5C0NfsiBfk9QR-YHAuwzPj5O63hH0g8Z13Auaubjsuq2k9vJ-UdviWzzZPnJ1IjKHYOzOgLb7jFmvVrsFNnueovy8byflgegU2_-aqJrLtibjtY7vQjkizFet6fO60/w640-h292/Echinocystis%20lobata%20vine.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Wild Cucumber, <i>Echinocystis lobata </i>(Michx.)
Torr. & A. Gray. This vine was growing over vegetation in a wet prairie.<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Wild Cucumber, also called Wild Balsam Apple, is a native,
annual vine of riverbanks, lakeshores, wetland edges and damp forest edges. It’s
especially evident in late summer, when its long vines produce upright racemes
of white flowers. (See <a href="https://www.larkspurplantresources.info/search?q=Flower+parts">Flower Parts for Plant ID</a> for an explanation of racemes and other inflorescences.)<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">The vines are fast-growing, even aggressive, and where
several get started, they can swamp whatever they’re growing on, including
other plants. The sight of them covering a tree, shrub, or garden can be
alarming – some say creepy – but according to the experts, there’s little to
fear. <o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSK6I4o78Qux0jbeWsjbTWIkliFvA30XOfBv6rC3NzwlsxpgQ44lpBsyWdKK5JLNGy3ogTkvl47vCQ37P6q9Xd29VWRmw1Ql1oz27NqN_unWHhg4Im8g8-6YkGFfhP0PCfIqH-QqcQ6s7fKdhKPLy8WN8dTKXTSMf9lUYKnooDpT-_Kr_A1aDb_54/s1086/Echinocystis%20lobata%20racemes.JPG" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="621" data-original-width="1086" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSK6I4o78Qux0jbeWsjbTWIkliFvA30XOfBv6rC3NzwlsxpgQ44lpBsyWdKK5JLNGy3ogTkvl47vCQ37P6q9Xd29VWRmw1Ql1oz27NqN_unWHhg4Im8g8-6YkGFfhP0PCfIqH-QqcQ6s7fKdhKPLy8WN8dTKXTSMf9lUYKnooDpT-_Kr_A1aDb_54/w640-h366/Echinocystis%20lobata%20racemes.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">In late summer, Wild Cucumber produces upright racemes of white flowers. Staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers are separate, but on the same plant. To use the botanical term, the plant is monoecious (mo-NEE-shus).</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Because Wild Cucumber is a native plant, it’s had a long
time to fit in. Throughout its natural range in most of the U.S. and Canada, it’s
adapted to the other things it lives with, and they are adapted to it. The
vines may overgrow and perhaps smother its host plants, but because of these
mutual adaptations, overall, Wild Cucumber is not considered a threat.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRQ8vlm5bfVgs299COhJmec_o_hZksYXd9tcjkPx_0dMhO2yO67L8iiWKBcB7sQqJhM964fDFx6x2ts9-1OanRYwVcxl73JRrPMENp1BFlyRBl5vAWsW4YuMnUjODhA39h940v39G4dqOy6l4-XnvuTz-eJgcfHU5-9DQfvt8hYSA7MYN4tNNbUog/s740/Soldier%20beetle%20on%20Echinocystis%20lobata.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="496" data-original-width="740" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRQ8vlm5bfVgs299COhJmec_o_hZksYXd9tcjkPx_0dMhO2yO67L8iiWKBcB7sQqJhM964fDFx6x2ts9-1OanRYwVcxl73JRrPMENp1BFlyRBl5vAWsW4YuMnUjODhA39h940v39G4dqOy6l4-XnvuTz-eJgcfHU5-9DQfvt8hYSA7MYN4tNNbUog/s320/Soldier%20beetle%20on%20Echinocystis%20lobata.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A soldier beetle collecting pollen from staminate flowers.</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">In other words, although Wild Cucumber can be aggressive,
it’s not invasive. The latter term is reserved for plants (or animals) that are
both introduced and aggressive. They’re new to an ecosystem, and for a variety
of reasons, they have a competitive advantage. For example, they may grow fast,
reproduce prolifically, have extended growing seasons or have few pests and
diseases, so they can easily displace other plants and disrupt ecosystems.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">That isn’t happening here, but in Central Europe, Wild
Cucumber is a pest. In Hungary, Poland, Austria and other countries, Wild
Cucumber was introduced as an ornamental and escaped cultivation. It
has invaded rivers valleys, lakeshores and wetlands, forming dense mats that
block light from reaching native European plants. By 2014, the plant had become
such a problem that it was considered “one of the 100 most dangerous invasive
plant species in Europe” (1). <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">It's possible to anticipate and even prevent such problems. Invasive
plants have some characteristics in common, and studying them can predict how a
plant will likely behave if it’s introduced outside its native range. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Here are some of the characteristics of Wild Cucumber that
make it invasive in Europe (1).<o:p></o:p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>It has a broad native range</li><li>It can adapt to a range of environments.</li><li>It is a human commensal, meaning it benefits from association with humans.</li><li>It grows fast.</li><li>It reproduces in abundance, in this case by seeds.</li><li>Its seeds remain viable for more than a year.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal">Many of the same characteristics are found in other plants
that are invasive. Common Buckthorn (<i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>), for example,
also has a broad range – across Europe – and can grow in several habitats. This
shrub or small tree was brought to North America as a hedge plant and escaped.
A female can produce hundreds to thousands of seeds, and they are viable for up
to five years. Common Buckthorn forms dense stands that displace other plants,
and it has become a scourge of many forested ecosystems. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">By comparison, Wild Cucumber is mostly harmless, at least
here. It will flower for a few more weeks before forming prickly, oval
“cucumbers” that are not edible. The seeds will shoot out of the fruit in
autumn, overwinter, and germinate in spring. That's a good time to remove the seedlings if you don't want them. Wild Cucumber is an annual, so the
parent vine will die after one season. <o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal">For more information about how to identify Wild Cucumber,
see this <a href="https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-cucumber">page
from Minnesota Wildflowers</a>. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>References</b><o:p></o:p></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal">(1) CABI Invasive Species Compendium. Echinocystis lobata (wild
cucumber). Accessed August 19, 2022. <a href="https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/113998">https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/113998</a><o:p></o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-88172130231829305822022-07-31T16:00:00.023-05:002022-11-26T09:18:14.933-06:00How to Identify Native and Introduced Phragmites<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZhL2ZKqxqFocZX7eZp9dOB-qgT4MbD_zqnQFXKhtOXQLUvP_IjITzOlLE8RBMeWbiI6Xvqi9WTf44Frag8Lg6UCeezNrf2p1_iewun-lzr-_pQFoaYLTybS13r5KdfSDv7j-1q6-OHObePgK0YHPmFg5EAkgDx8YdK1i3EMhShOUoJgo7M3-vBE/s1011/Banner%20photo%202.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A colony of Phragmites grasses with last year's panicles." border="0" data-original-height="641" data-original-width="1011" height="406" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZhL2ZKqxqFocZX7eZp9dOB-qgT4MbD_zqnQFXKhtOXQLUvP_IjITzOlLE8RBMeWbiI6Xvqi9WTf44Frag8Lg6UCeezNrf2p1_iewun-lzr-_pQFoaYLTybS13r5KdfSDv7j-1q6-OHObePgK0YHPmFg5EAkgDx8YdK1i3EMhShOUoJgo7M3-vBE/w640-h406/Banner%20photo%202.JPG" title="Phragmites colony" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">P<i>hragmites australis</i> subsp. <i>americanus</i>. Photo taken in early August in southern Minnesota.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /><i><br /></i></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><br /></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i>Update</i>: An abbreviated ID guide (PDF) is <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VnpVg4BhyEcJWhaDpOHodun2F8iRf9DB/view?usp=share_link">here</a>. </p><p class="MsoNormal">Phragmites or Common Reed, <i>Phragmites australis,</i> is a 12- to 18-foot
tall, perennial grass of wetlands, shorelines and ditches. Two subspecies are
common in the U.S. One is the native subspecies <i>americanus</i>; the other is
the introduced subspecies <i>australis</i>.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span>Both subspecies grow in colonies, but subspecies <i>australis</i>
is more aggressive and can dominate habitats to the near exclusion of other
plants. For that reason, there is growing interest in identifying and mapping
subspecies <i>australis</i> to determine the extent of its spread and to target
those colonies for removal. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span>Although the subspecies look alike, there are several
characteristics that, taken together, can identify one from the other. The most
reliable characteristics are shown below, after a few terms used to describe
grass stems, leaves and flowers.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Stems and leaves</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkfcBTIpQkQV0GwZFHE-SubObyhvFw2ywCQ8EMF3lCWBXKjABvJuvRyS_lyzTQu-yH0uHY5C2CCaw0ELgTOEG15eZOnNcE8kT4n1uxGIyBMoOr9DIh68V24a4Wat14-BEQgYOLqGUmSYiOY_L2_rBHDnswaI-KSu0L7rgpBg7_v6joBWV0tLXTboo/s2567/Vegetative%20parts%20of%20grasses.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A panel of two photos labeling the culm, blade, sheath and ligule." border="0" data-original-height="1824" data-original-width="2567" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkfcBTIpQkQV0GwZFHE-SubObyhvFw2ywCQ8EMF3lCWBXKjABvJuvRyS_lyzTQu-yH0uHY5C2CCaw0ELgTOEG15eZOnNcE8kT4n1uxGIyBMoOr9DIh68V24a4Wat14-BEQgYOLqGUmSYiOY_L2_rBHDnswaI-KSu0L7rgpBg7_v6joBWV0tLXTboo/w400-h284/Vegetative%20parts%20of%20grasses.jpg" title="Vegetative parts of grasses" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p></p><br /><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>The <b>culm</b> is the stem of a grass. Grasses have round culms that are hollow between the nodes, the swollen areas on a culm. The leaf <b>blade</b> is flat and ribbon-like, whereas the leaf <b>sheath</b> wraps around the culm below the blade. Where the blade meets the sheath, most grasses have a <b>ligule</b>, a membrane or hairy fringe visible when the blade is pulled away from the culm.</div><div><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Flowers</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span>Grass flowers, called florets, are specialized for wind
pollination. Each floret is composed of two narrow bracts, a lower lemma and an upper palea.
Stamens and feathery stigmas emerge from between them. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span>Florets are arranged in small spikes called spikelets. At
the base of each spikelet are two bracts called glumes. Glume length differs
between the subspecies of Phragmites. More on that in a following section.</span> </p><p class="MsoNormal">Spikelets of Smooth Brome, <i>Bromus inermis</i>, are shown below. On the left are spikelets with brown anthers and feathery, white stigmas emerging from individual florets. On the right is a single spikelet spread apart to see the florets and glumes. The spikelets are about 3 cm (1.5 in.) long. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU1z5Y-6X-7f2OPNTceUXdZi5qLb6jxXPmKfNvADDbXoIRstdeDbwf73M8hwrkJZK82g5YjlatDyu6krUX6KhPVYXT8AJJy_SazgSzNzQ7KuuivDB2k41L6rGz7AV-lrgCg3opQp461rRt3XpCx6_B-lY55OfxDmt47CIrjfPd29Y35ypN_ruRYOs/s2629/Grass%20spikelets,%20florets%20and%20glumes.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A panel of two photos showing spikelets of smooth brome, with glumes and florets labeled." border="0" data-original-height="2139" data-original-width="2629" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU1z5Y-6X-7f2OPNTceUXdZi5qLb6jxXPmKfNvADDbXoIRstdeDbwf73M8hwrkJZK82g5YjlatDyu6krUX6KhPVYXT8AJJy_SazgSzNzQ7KuuivDB2k41L6rGz7AV-lrgCg3opQp461rRt3XpCx6_B-lY55OfxDmt47CIrjfPd29Y35ypN_ruRYOs/w364-h296/Grass%20spikelets,%20florets%20and%20glumes.jpg" title="Grass spikelets, florets and glumes" width="364" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Phragmites characteristics</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span>To identify Phragmites subspecies, it’s best to look at more
than one plant in a colony and at several characteristics of each plant.
Hybrids are possible, but they’re said to be rare. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span><b>Ligules</b> </span></p><span>To see ligules, pull back a blade from the middle third of the culm. (Ligules may be immature on the upper third of the culm and degraded on the lower third.) </span>Ligule length differs between the subspecies. <div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>Subspecies <i>americanus:</i> 1-2 mm long, brown, become darker and smudgy in late summer and fall. The photo below was taken in early August.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>Subspecies <i>australis</i>: 0.5-1 mm long, appearing as a thin, brown line. The photo below was taken in early July.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2--AqQwQc98oXUTFzLeGs6j-zDzi0dHE1FpzEG954IKRT5zSiFmn3Jrl83FcIbVuWGisy2ThCYEKc-raO1Ea6s_WlA-sxzzj6dHU1uoDtRLrfkbgPzUMjrV5loY8MxfBMvlgAhTrllFTArLZaEioOzrPFjuIITLnngNUvKz-3GjwaT4snXZlqfDk/s2688/Ligules%20of%20Phragmites%20subspecies.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A panel of two photos showing the ligules of subspecies americanus and australis." border="0" data-original-height="1693" data-original-width="2688" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2--AqQwQc98oXUTFzLeGs6j-zDzi0dHE1FpzEG954IKRT5zSiFmn3Jrl83FcIbVuWGisy2ThCYEKc-raO1Ea6s_WlA-sxzzj6dHU1uoDtRLrfkbgPzUMjrV5loY8MxfBMvlgAhTrllFTArLZaEioOzrPFjuIITLnngNUvKz-3GjwaT4snXZlqfDk/w387-h244/Ligules%20of%20Phragmites%20subspecies.jpg" title="Ligules of Phragmites subspecies" width="387" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div><b>Stem color and texture</b></div><div><div>In summer and fall, examine the base of the culm. Be sure to look at the culm and not the sheath, if one is present. The photos below are from early July.</div><div><br /></div><div>Subspecies <i>americanus</i>: Lower culm is smooth, somewhat glossy, often red.</div><div>Subspecies <i>australis</i>: Lower culm is ridged, not glossy, often green fading to brown.</div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg511WWTEHBmi_nMMHbDr-MXzo0TZDLitVsHnuDjRUOp-J5skHdCx84NwvhmC1zZhD2FxN1QcQQmBxwQprthIOMzmeag2KdMtJgrPzRVHTd9c2MEcNdHOiBRykUBRC0kOfNvslOEvD2nQCqcGKB1vtRZiSI7WEu6lL6N8sE06dwwKwdyXuyH21TJZs/s2669/Phragmites%20lower%20stems.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="The smooth, red lower stem of subspecies americanus and the green, ridged lower stem of subspecies australis." border="0" data-original-height="1908" data-original-width="2669" height="273" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg511WWTEHBmi_nMMHbDr-MXzo0TZDLitVsHnuDjRUOp-J5skHdCx84NwvhmC1zZhD2FxN1QcQQmBxwQprthIOMzmeag2KdMtJgrPzRVHTd9c2MEcNdHOiBRykUBRC0kOfNvslOEvD2nQCqcGKB1vtRZiSI7WEu6lL6N8sE06dwwKwdyXuyH21TJZs/w381-h273/Phragmites%20lower%20stems.jpg" title="Lower stems of Phragmites subspecies." width="381" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Sheaths</b></p>In late summer, fall and early winter, examine the lower stem for the presence of leaf sheaths. The photos below are from mid-November. <br /><br />Subspecies <i>americanus</i>: Sheaths are absent or easily removed.</div><div>Subspecies <i>australis</i>: Sheaths are persistent and harder to remove. </div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjktT31cuuK-z9eu56lHkEbJLVFimwuNc1RbUggfTYVrk74iZk0EeFpDOXyTXqMK3zHbmG6Z7vTJKuNp063RYOcI_6_ICp4_nWrFk39V5bht-87eMqyc8BOm76IOVgoAXOYwjCK0JRia_u6PJqq5y-4vDybl94LH2g7SjpNnS7Ekxp3lplb--A5b_M/s2250/Phragmites%20sheaths.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="The bare stem of subspecies americanus compared to the sheathed stem of subspecies australis in November." border="0" data-original-height="1814" data-original-width="2250" height="275" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjktT31cuuK-z9eu56lHkEbJLVFimwuNc1RbUggfTYVrk74iZk0EeFpDOXyTXqMK3zHbmG6Z7vTJKuNp063RYOcI_6_ICp4_nWrFk39V5bht-87eMqyc8BOm76IOVgoAXOYwjCK0JRia_u6PJqq5y-4vDybl94LH2g7SjpNnS7Ekxp3lplb--A5b_M/w341-h275/Phragmites%20sheaths.jpg" title="Phragmites sheaths in November" width="341" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Glumes</b></p>In late summer and fall, measure glume length. By late fall some of the florets may be gone, but the glumes often persist. It's best to look at several pairs of glumes to get an idea of their average length. The photos below are from mid-November.<br /><br />Subspecies <i>americanus</i>: Lower glume 3-6 mm long (most > 4mm); upper glume 5-11 mm long (most > 6 mm).</div><div>Subspecies <i>australis</i>: Lower glume 2.5-5 mm long (most < 4 mm); upper glume 5-8 mm long (most < 6 mm).<br /><b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzZdLtOfbKINdrveeLHa0BqqbGacP1bGf5lVjII5lATGclO-vTP5M0ty5Ya-O0CfhLwjQiaDHgVn2Jztw63gDL6gLrL1tBVvgsv_V7iegrOktRN1cxQRaHoSZqavW-EMOoDlMBveuXvUSYzHPBYlF0BxlMGKZDDRIpEK2kHX-EYXYZWhw3vPj5i48/s2614/Glumes%20alone.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div></b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjX5NPI2jMg6ZtJQse0UZXbU725ASE5z1jUj8p9fjrpwF7kabOf3_5eluUgpPZfJhDF69lWQPTnTWkF6YdkhCd8xWuhFdxEjwNwzp_b59PUp7Wm4W1ZYbjwdArQz-Mq2DzbAvV6YQFj_HhH14fgvMWXw0mP36PUWUc1OPF_DzTOT-kgjEQc8LBXlLs/s2614/Phragmites%20glumes.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="The glumes of subspecies americanus and australis along a metric ruler." border="0" data-original-height="1919" data-original-width="2614" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjX5NPI2jMg6ZtJQse0UZXbU725ASE5z1jUj8p9fjrpwF7kabOf3_5eluUgpPZfJhDF69lWQPTnTWkF6YdkhCd8xWuhFdxEjwNwzp_b59PUp7Wm4W1ZYbjwdArQz-Mq2DzbAvV6YQFj_HhH14fgvMWXw0mP36PUWUc1OPF_DzTOT-kgjEQc8LBXlLs/w356-h261/Phragmites%20glumes.jpg" title="Glumes of Phragmites subspecies" width="356" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b>Panicles</b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b><br /></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">In late winter, spring or early summer, look at last season's panicles, the plume-like clusters of Phragmites spikelets. The photos below are from early July.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Subspecies <i>americanus</i>: Panicles bare, thinner, less branched.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Subspecies <i>australis</i>: Panicles fuzzier, thicker, more branched.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipIvRNhWgHwddLcP5QTDdD9SLJgSL0_6FgnIJtIJYt5Gzz1iL0hdaj7RVbpGgJ8mop1iEHTaPfVUCvj5v_cCuwCgXs5yQnyPq3q7nhxQA1WO-9Clr_Z6LuglkvysRO10pktXK0_FCRJW5eNmtJvv8xmmNWSbk6jU9Ry5NKGFwh_tkOGWkOYh2W8m8/s2630/Phragmites%20panicles.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A panel of two photos contrasting the panicles of subspecies americanus and australis." border="0" data-original-height="1894" data-original-width="2630" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipIvRNhWgHwddLcP5QTDdD9SLJgSL0_6FgnIJtIJYt5Gzz1iL0hdaj7RVbpGgJ8mop1iEHTaPfVUCvj5v_cCuwCgXs5yQnyPq3q7nhxQA1WO-9Clr_Z6LuglkvysRO10pktXK0_FCRJW5eNmtJvv8xmmNWSbk6jU9Ry5NKGFwh_tkOGWkOYh2W8m8/w376-h270/Phragmites%20panicles.jpg" title="Phragmites panicles" width="376" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Look-alikes</span></b></p>
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Amur Silver Grass and Reed Canary Grass are two smaller grasses that can
be mistaken for Phragmites. </span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Amur Silver Grass, <i>Miscanthus sacchariflorus,</i> is an introduced grass that has silvery-white panicles in late summer and fall. It grows 6-8 feet tall, shorter than Phragmites, and its leaf blades have a white midrib. Its ligules are a greenish-white, hairy fringe. The photos below were taken in early August.</span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXT9gj9pJYrG6v3DHwcb_NeSpfYbczYPQZlMUS5QP14JvYJFNpuCV7_iDYWKn-QnnCpPohphVGN55Yr4maaH8jueriMlWbuf9Xpwgi7USmXpaZf1onBFFM8TGCxeBlfUImUq7vWm-rIKlVtw8Y95X7FYE1EdZG4JZbkeVllidYSeVnpnq6nClz6DY/s3112/Amur%20silver%20grass%20plants%20and%20ligule.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of two photos showing a colony and a ligule of Amur Silver Grass." border="0" data-original-height="1935" data-original-width="3112" height="242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXT9gj9pJYrG6v3DHwcb_NeSpfYbczYPQZlMUS5QP14JvYJFNpuCV7_iDYWKn-QnnCpPohphVGN55Yr4maaH8jueriMlWbuf9Xpwgi7USmXpaZf1onBFFM8TGCxeBlfUImUq7vWm-rIKlVtw8Y95X7FYE1EdZG4JZbkeVllidYSeVnpnq6nClz6DY/w390-h242/Amur%20silver%20grass%20plants%20and%20ligule.jpg" title="Amur Silver Grass plants and ligule" width="390" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Amur Silver Grass plants and ligule.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Reed Canary Grass, <i>Phalaris arundinacea, </i>blooms in spring, not late summer, with smaller panicles that eventually contract. It's shorter than Phragmites, growing up to 5 feet tall. Its ligules are membranous and 3-8 mm long. </span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm8nABxNFT1haqRdgAvR_zOgBMP74hQLeFPMHfaRIUBakmN9Wekr17KvjEBo5M1b1ZITQbINFNi2UUGwPn8xnjRbUfNh5G5WINaQgnqSXQTif3-1WhhR9b8ZVXooVeR8zgj2POsTdlQRkqmFam8Agc8WbJSTWnHD2EhqE34oLEl6crs39WN5Res7w/s3362/Reed%20Canary%20Grass%20plants%20and%20ligule.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A panel of two photos showing a colony and a ligule of Reed Canary Grass." border="0" data-original-height="1904" data-original-width="3362" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm8nABxNFT1haqRdgAvR_zOgBMP74hQLeFPMHfaRIUBakmN9Wekr17KvjEBo5M1b1ZITQbINFNi2UUGwPn8xnjRbUfNh5G5WINaQgnqSXQTif3-1WhhR9b8ZVXooVeR8zgj2POsTdlQRkqmFam8Agc8WbJSTWnHD2EhqE34oLEl6crs39WN5Res7w/w400-h226/Reed%20Canary%20Grass%20plants%20and%20ligule.jpg" title="Reed Canary Grass colony and ligule" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;">Reed Canary Grass colony and ligule.</div><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><b><span style="font-size: medium;"><div><span style="line-height: 107%;"><b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></b></span></div>References</span></b></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 107%;">
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Chadde, S.W. 2012. Wetland Plants of Minnesota. 2<sup>nd</sup>
edition (revised). A Bogman Guide.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Judziewicz, E. J., Freckmann, R.W., Clark, L.G., and Black,
M.R. 2014. Field Guide to Wisconsin Grasses. The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center (MAISRC).
<a href="https://maisrc.umn.edu/phragmites-id">Identifying invasive Phragmites</a>.
Website accessed July 2022.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Swearingen, J., Saltonstall, K., and Tilley, D. <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_PLANTMATERIALS/publications/idpmctn11494.pdf">Phragmites
Field Guide: Distinguishing Native and Exotic Forms of Common Reed (Phragmites
Australis) in the United States</a>. Technical Note Plant Materials 56, October
2012. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Boise, ID.</span><o:p></o:p></p></span></div><div><b><br /></b></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /></div></div>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6642123122037802941.post-1485773860978965722022-07-16T10:33:00.002-05:002022-11-26T09:18:35.546-06:00Plant profile: Enchanter's Nightshade<p> </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5n43-4XRpVdxVMAw8SF9HTTBiNixv7hnjTx7lqEelovJTRgJ6IhE9Kb7fVwbqPBmQxzLFLibsH4sQ8_YO0F3cLqrm3xfBanYaDssKc736nEcNWqUCSlXK6s3nWoQb_oxAp3KVkYEBZC5IStWXOjORRlB3f2-tbXroMfXzeaahppx1-qhNGw8NqF8/s959/Plants.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="A group of Enchanter's Nightshade with racemes of small, white flowers." border="0" data-original-height="635" data-original-width="959" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5n43-4XRpVdxVMAw8SF9HTTBiNixv7hnjTx7lqEelovJTRgJ6IhE9Kb7fVwbqPBmQxzLFLibsH4sQ8_YO0F3cLqrm3xfBanYaDssKc736nEcNWqUCSlXK6s3nWoQb_oxAp3KVkYEBZC5IStWXOjORRlB3f2-tbXroMfXzeaahppx1-qhNGw8NqF8/w640-h424/Plants.JPG" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Enchanter's Nightshade, <i>Circaea lutetiana</i> L., in July. </td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Enchanter’s Nightshade, <i>Circaea lutetiana</i>, doesn’t
get a lot of positive attention. This native plant of the forest floor is often
regarded as a weed, something to remove in favor of less aggressive, more
attractive species. Its appearance is modest at best. Its name, though, suggests something less humble. What’s the story?</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Mostly Inconspicuous<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Compared to showier spring wildflowers, this summer bloomer
isn’t much to look at. Individual stems grow up to a foot tall, sometimes
longer, with opposite, egg-shaped leaves and smooth stems. The plant spreads
with rhizomes to form colonies, especially in disturbed areas or canopy gaps where
more light reaches the understory. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In July and August, Enchanter’s Nightshade produces small,
white flowers on racemes. If not for their masses, the flowers would be easy to
miss. Each is just a few millimeters across, smaller than an eraser on the end
of a pencil, with a mere two sepals, two petals, two stamens and one pistil. They're beautiful, but minimal. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Small, pear-shaped fruits follow. They’re covered with
hooked hairs that grab onto anything that passes – shoelaces, socks, pants, fur. It’s
impossible to ignore them, but it’s not the kind of attention that inspires admiration.
A few steps through a patch catches a
load of little stickers.<o:p></o:p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggxwaMUrEXUgHx6JT4DDCc6Nu1YkgGR-U-fpuIIvpmIW74PPtNwY4zx4M3LC_gjZ2F-XVew9l9kgfDVsdBNOh67iMLiu1TN1273YEnJPqettLi8ffPZX5k7SKVcL5USxMoETDHwz244jc14qXpuj8BsqgH5X5qp3OEXcAh630zHUzTevlmRuQ_Zm0/s3590/Flowers%20and%20fruits%20with%20arrows.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1337" data-original-width="3590" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggxwaMUrEXUgHx6JT4DDCc6Nu1YkgGR-U-fpuIIvpmIW74PPtNwY4zx4M3LC_gjZ2F-XVew9l9kgfDVsdBNOh67iMLiu1TN1273YEnJPqettLi8ffPZX5k7SKVcL5USxMoETDHwz244jc14qXpuj8BsqgH5X5qp3OEXcAh630zHUzTevlmRuQ_Zm0/w640-h238/Flowers%20and%20fruits%20with%20arrows.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: left;">Flowers and fruits of Enchanter's Nighshade.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>From Meek to Mythical<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The ”enchanter” in the plant’s
name is Circe, the sorceress of Greek myth. According to legend, she used herbs
and potions to turn people into pigs, lions and wolves. One of the herbs in her concoctions was <i>Circaea lutetiana</i>, the plant that now bears her name. The species
name <i>lutetiana</i> also reflects the plant’s supposed use in sorcery.
Lutetia was the ancient city that is now Paris, France, called “the city of
witches” in some accounts. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Studies of the plant’s chemistry don’t find much that is
bewitching. Although it’s called a nightshade, it’s not a traditional member of
that group. Nightshades are usually plants in the tomato family, Solanaceae
(solan-AY-see-ee). In terms of chemistry, this family is known for its higher
quantities of alkaloids, compounds that have uncertain roles in plants but a
variety of physiological effects in humans. Some alkaloids, such as opium from
poppies and cocaine from coca bushes, are mind-altering, euphoric and addictive.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">In contrast, Enchanter’s Nightshade is in the evening
primrose family, Onagraceae. Its chemistry features flavonoids, molecules that have various functions in plants. Some are pigments – the
red of raspberries, for example – while others regulate growth or protect
against UV radiation, among other roles (1, 2). Like alkaloids, flavonoids have
potential use in medicine, but they aren’t mind-altering, and they aren’t associated
with euphoria. In fact, they’re relatively benign. Circe might have worked some
legendary magic, but Enchanter’s Nightshade wouldn’t have put much punch in her
potions. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Adaptation and Potential Advantage<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The ”nightshade” in its name, then, probably comes from its
shady habitat. Like other plants of the forest floor, Enchanter’s Nightshade is
adapted to an environment with limited light. One adaptation is its ability to
colonize gaps or disturbances by growth if its rhizomes, underground stems that
produce shoots along their length. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Unlike other clonal plants, Enchanter’s Nightshade holds some of that
ability in reserve. Its new rhizomes do not produce shoots. Instead, they lengthen
and branch until late summer, when some of them produce small tubers called
hibernacles at their tips. Eventually the hibernacles are separated from the
parent plant and from each other and go dormant. They are the vegetative
equivalent of seeds, but with faster development the following spring to form patches of upright stems. In higher light intensities, this growth can be vigorous (3). <o:p></o:p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrYBt3dJ9EYjF1wAkKG-Me-8-E6YKsAGa1k8-32H5yqLWn7cL2DlAvf66yl8nV8nKr0-szwvGWIxSNx23_vl567eAYFtsne65F-yEBH_QJ92JhaoMCq0wwL7L-xN85CLbWwqA8133a-ACDf18qgzpRv7rr7MMW6ZuSUyfyNOhjSREV7ShCMA7xukQ/s2561/Rhizomes%20with%20arrow.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1887" data-original-width="2561" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrYBt3dJ9EYjF1wAkKG-Me-8-E6YKsAGa1k8-32H5yqLWn7cL2DlAvf66yl8nV8nKr0-szwvGWIxSNx23_vl567eAYFtsne65F-yEBH_QJ92JhaoMCq0wwL7L-xN85CLbWwqA8133a-ACDf18qgzpRv7rr7MMW6ZuSUyfyNOhjSREV7ShCMA7xukQ/w400-h295/Rhizomes%20with%20arrow.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Near the end of the season, tips of rhizomes (arrow) develop into tuber-like hibernacles. <br />The hibernacles overwinter and resume growth next spring, forming new rhizomes and <br />above ground shoots.</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p class="MsoNormal">Although some consider that growth weedy and aggressive, it
could prove useful. Restorationists are looking at Enchanter’s Nightshade and
other “weedy natives” as potential cover crops where severe infestations of
invasive plants have been removed. By shading out or otherwise competing with invasive plants that can reoccupy an area, Enchanter’s Nightshade may give native communities an improved chance to recover (4). </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">It’s not magic, but it could be transformative. If research shows this to be an effective restoration technique, Enchanter’s
Nightshade could help convert a landscape from diminished to diverse. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b>References<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(1) Falcone Ferreyra, M.L,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Rius, S.P., and Casati, P. (2012). Flavonoids: biosynthesis, biological
functions, and biotechnological applications. Frontiers in Plant Science volume
33, article 222. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2012.00222">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2012.00222</a>.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(2) Panche, A. N., Diwan, A. D., and Chandra, S. R. (2016).
Flavonoids: an overview. Journal of nutritional science, 5, e47. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2016.41">https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2016.41</a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(3) Verburg, R.W., and During, H.J. (1998). Vegetative
propagation and sexual reproduction in the woodland understorey pseudo-annual <i>Circaea
lutetiana</i> L. Plant Ecology 134: 211-224. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009741102627">https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009741102627</a><span face=""Segoe UI",sans-serif" style="background: rgb(252, 252, 252); color: #333333;">. </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(4) Reinartz, J., White, M., and Hapner, J. No date. A role for
native weeds and aggressive plants for replacing (or competing with) invasives
in badly degraded areas. Invasive Plants Association of Wisconsin. Accessed
online on 7/13/22 at <a href="https://ipaw.org/the-solution/control/a-role-for-native-weeds/">A Role
for Native Weeds - Invasive Plants Association of Wisconsin (ipaw.org)</a>. <o:p></o:p></p><br /><p></p>Susanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00378972436894456032noreply@blogger.comMinnesota, USA46.729553 -94.685899818.419319163821157 -129.84214980000002 75.039786836178848 -59.5296498